英语日常语法:谁制定了语法规则?

Who Makes Grammar Rules? 英语日常语法:谁制定了语法规则?

If you learned about grammar in school, you were probably taught to think about “correct” and “incorrect” ways of using a language.

Maybe you had to “unlearn” some grammar patterns that you heard at home because your teacher said they were wrong.

Prescriptive Grammar

The traditional way of teaching grammar in school is called prescriptive grammar. Grammar is seen as a set of rules to follow. The rules are passed from one generation to another. Those who do not follow the rules are looked down upon as being careless or poorly educated.

In America, the style of grammar used in academic, government, and professional situations is called Standard American English. There is no official government agency in the United States that makes rules for the English language. In fact, the United States does not even have an official language.

Teachers usually rely on tradition and popular style guides to decide what proper grammar is.

Descriptive Grammar

Descriptive grammar takes a different approach. Descriptive grammarians observe and analyze¹ language as it is used in different communities. They look for rules and patterns that people follow. In descriptive grammar, there is no correct or incorrect way of using grammar.

For example, a prescriptive grammarian might say, “Don’t use a double negative because it is illogical.” A descriptive grammarian might say, “Some communities use double negatives and some do not. Why is that?” We’ll talk more about double negatives later.

Dr. Richard Epstein is a linguist³ at Rutgers University in Camden, New Jersey⁴. Dr. Epstein says that most people do not understand the social and political processes behind grammar rules.

“Nobody knows why we should not use ‘ain’t’ or why we should not use double negatives because the teachers teach these things as if they were simply rules that came down from some higher power, authority, maybe God, and there’s no rhyme or reason taught for the reason what the reason is for the existence of these rules. So it seems quite boring and totally arbitrary.”

The Case of the Double Negative

Dr. Epstein says grammar rules have nothing to do with logic². Instead, they are based on social fashions, politics, and power. He gives the example of the double negative.

As we mentioned on an episode of Everyday Grammar, certain types of double negative words are not allowed in Standard American English. For example, “I don’t know nothing.” The two words “don’t” and nothing” are both negative. Most Americans were taught that double negatives are illogical.

In math, two negatives equal a positive. But is this true in language? Does “I don’t know nothing” mean “I know something.”? Of course not. It just makes a stronger negative. The rule against the double negative does not come from math; it comes from Robert Lowth, the bishop⁵ of London.

Robert Lowth’s book A Short Introduction to English Grammar, first published in 1762, prohibited the double negative. Dr. Epstein says that random⁶ grammar rules were a way for the upper classes of London to protect themselves from a rising middle class.

“The upper classes became concerned that people below them were getting educated and getting access to sources of power. So to protect their own status and authority people started to prescribe rules for grammar. And if you couldn’t follow those rules then you didn’t have access to power and authority like the rich people of the day.”

Ain’t ‘ain’t’ a word?

Here’s another example. American children are taught that “ain’t” is not a word. However, many Americans say “ain’t” in place of “is not” or “are not.” Listen to this song by Bob Dylan.

Someone to open each and every door

But it ain’t me, babe

No, no, no it ain’t me, babe

It ain’t me you’re looking for, babe

American school teachers told children to stop using the word “ain’t” in the 1800s. But long ago, the word “ain’t” was the proper negative contraction⁷ for “I am not.” Ironically, the British upper classes continued to use “ain’t” after the Americans banned it. Dr. Epstein explains.

“Knowing that regular folks used ‘ain’t’ but the upper classes of the United States didn’t, they created this sort of fake rule that you shouldn’t use ‘ain’t’ because it didn’t make sense. Of course it makes perfect sense to anybody who says it. But now we have this rule.”

So who makes the grammar rules? In America, the grammar patterns of rich white men are the basis of Standard American English, Epstein says. Nobody will go to jail for ignoring grammar rules. But they will have difficulty getting into the best schools and finding good jobs.

You ain’t seen nothin’ yet…

B-b-b-baby you just ain’t seen nothin’ yet

Words in This Story

prescriptive grammar – n. a set of rules for using language that are taught, or enforced, so that people will use the language in a particular way.

descriptive grammar – n. a set of rules about language based on how it is actually used. In a descriptive grammar there is no right or wrong language.

linguist – n. a person who studies languages scientifically

no rhyme or reason – idiom. no reason or evidence

arbitrary – adj. not planned or chosen for a particular reason : not based on reason or evidence

double negative – n. a clause that has two negative words (such as “nothing” and “don't”)

prohibited – adj. not allowed

1 analyze   

vt.分析，解析 (=analyse)

参考例句：

• We should analyze the cause and effect of this event.我们应该分析这场事变的因果。
• The teacher tried to analyze the cause of our failure.老师设法分析我们失败的原因。

2 logic   

n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性

参考例句：

• What sort of logic is that?这是什么逻辑？
• I don't follow the logic of your argument.我不明白你的论点逻辑性何在。

3 linguist   

n.语言学家；精通数种外国语言者

参考例句：

• I used to be a linguist till I become a writer.过去我是个语言学家，后来成了作家。
• Professor Cui has a high reputation as a linguist.崔教授作为语言学家名声很高。

4 jersey   

n.运动衫

参考例句：

• He wears a cotton jersey when he plays football.他穿运动衫踢足球。
• They were dressed alike in blue jersey and knickers.他们穿着一致，都是蓝色的运动衫和灯笼短裤。

5 bishop   

n.主教，（国际象棋）象

参考例句：

• He was a bishop who was held in reverence by all.他是一位被大家都尊敬的主教。
• Two years after his death the bishop was canonised.主教逝世两年后被正式封为圣者。

6 random   

adj.随机的；任意的；n.偶然的(或随便的)行动

参考例句：

• The list is arranged in a random order.名单排列不分先后。
• On random inspection the meat was found to be bad.经抽查，发现肉变质了。

7 contraction   

n.缩略词，缩写式，害病

参考例句：

• The contraction of this muscle raises the lower arm.肌肉的收缩使前臂抬起。
• The forces of expansion are balanced by forces of contraction.扩张力和收缩力相互平衡。