美国国家公共电台 NPR Where Lead Lurks And Why Even Small Amounts Matter

Where Lead Lurks¹ And Why Even Small Amounts Matter

RENEE MONTAGNE, HOST:

Here's the latest on the lead in Flint, Michigan's water. It no longer rises to what the Environmental Protection Agency calls the action level. New water tests do show progress. But even as the city's water has dropped to barely below the level where the EPA urges action, there is still potential for dangerous lead levels in individual homes. NPR's Jessica Pupovac reports.

JESSICA PUPOVAC, BYLINE²: To test water for lead, you have to send samples to a lab, like this one in Washington, D.C.. Tom Jacobus, the general manager of the Washington Aqueduct, says lately they've been overwhelmed.

TOM JACOBUS: Since the Flint concern was raised, we've had about 600 samples come to the lab.

PUPOVAC: He says that's about five times more than last year.

JACOBUS: But - I mean, this is a big story, and people are concerned.

PUPOVAC: Parents are concerned, teachers, public officials - they're all sending water off to labs. And when they get the results, they're comparing them against 15 parts per billion. That's the Environmental Protection Agency's action level. Results above that threshold are a red flag for water utilities, a sign that they might have a lead problem. In many cities, officials have assured parents when lead levels at schools are below that number. News outlets³ are repeating those assurances. In Youngstown, Ohio...

(SOUNDBITE OF ARCHIVED RECORDING)

UNIDENTIFIED WOMAN #1: They are below the federal maximum permitted, which is 15 parts per billion.

PUPOVAC: In Tacoma, Wash...

(SOUNDBITE OF ARCHIVED RECORDING)

UNIDENTIFIED MAN: Fifteen parts per billion...

PUPOVAC: And in Newark, N.J...

(SOUNDBITE OF ARCHIVED RECORDING)

UNIDENTIFIED WOMAN #2: Should not exceed 15 parts per billion...

PUPOVAC: But there's a problem because that EPA action level, 15 parts per billion, is not a measure of safety. It was never intended to be used that way.

JEFF COHEN: I think the 15 parts per billion's gotten a bit of mischaracterization.

PUPOVAC: Jeff Cohen helped develop the EPA's regulation to control lead in the water. It's called the Lead and Copper⁴ Rule. It went into effect in 1991. Here's how it works - water utilities have to take samples in a certain number of homes and test them for lead. They get to essentially⁵ toss out the worst 10 percent. If any of the remaining samples still have lead levels above that 15 parts per billion, it means they have a problem. They have to do something to fix it. That's why it's called an action level. But, says Cohen...

COHEN: It's an action level for water systems. In the home, it's a different story. Like for an individual homeowner, I wouldn't consider 15 parts per billion a safe level.

PUPOVAC: He said it's not based on medical research. Utilities came up with that number. It's just what they told the EPA they could manage.

COHEN: It was never designed to identify a safe level of lead in drinking water. The goal of the rule is zero lead in drinking water.

PUPOVAC: That's because no amount of lead is known to be safe. But with the amount of lead in the water distribution system, zero isn't realistic. Lead isn't like other contaminants. It isn't usually there when the water leaves the treatment plant. When there is lead in tap water, it tends to come from the pipes, most often the pipes at the very end of its journey connected to or inside the house. The main source of lead is usually the service line. That's what brings water from the utilities main under the street to the house. Millions of homes across the country have service lines made of pure lead.

YANNA LAMBRINIDOU: Having a lead service line in front of one's home is essentially like drawing your water through a lead straw.

PUPOVAC: Yanna Lambrinidou teaches in the civil and environmental engineering department at Virginia Tech. She's a leading advocate for zero lead.

LAMBRINIDOU: You'll drink your water. It will be fine, low levels, low levels. And then all of a sudden, you'll get a lead particle that has fallen out of your pipes.

PUPOVAC: Those particles can flake⁶ off whenever something jostles the pipes, like a heavy truck coming down the road. Lead can also seep⁷ into the water when that water just sits in the pipes for too long. Utilities use chemicals to slow the process down, but, says Lambrinidou...

LAMBRINIDOU: We can minimize. We can control it as much as possible, but we cannot prevent it entirely⁸.

PUPOVAC: The EPA says it's working on revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule, but they haven't changed the action level since the rule was first introduced. The American Academy of Pediatrics recently called for tightening⁹ all federal regulations. They said the limits, quote, "create the illusion of safety."

BRUCE LANPHEAR: Virtually every standard for lead is based more on feasibility as opposed to the best science.

PUPOVAC: Dr. Bruce Lanphear was the lead author of that position paper. He says there's been a drastic decline in blood lead levels in recent decades.

LANPHEAR: And yet, even at these lower levels, what we're finding is evidence of toxicity¹⁰, IQ deficits¹¹, increases in behavior problems like ADHD and conduct disorder¹².

PUPOVAC: That's for children. In adults, low-level lead exposure can lead to high blood pressure and kidney problems. There are no public disclosure requirements for lead service lines like there are for lead paint, so many people who are at risk have no idea. Kate Gilles in Washington, D.C., was one of those people.

Is now an OK time? Is it nap time?

KATE GILLES: It's great, yeah.

PUPOVAC: She has a master's degree in public health, and checked for lead in the paint. She said she thought she would have been notified about something like lead service lines.

GILLES: Or that it would be part of home inspection¹³ or in any number of places or that DC Water would have something on your bill that's, like, by the way, if you'd like your lead pipes replaced...

PUPOVAC: It turns out she's gone through two pregnancies¹⁴ in a home with lead service lines. But all of this was before the crisis in Flint and before she called and asked the local utility, DC Water.

GILLES: I feel silly for not checking into it, but I also feel really angry that there's nothing that flags it for homeowners.

PUPOVAC: After NPR inquired, DC Water published a full map of the known lead service lines in the city. But like most utilities, their inventory¹⁵ has gaps - more than 13,000 homes that may or may not have lead service lines. Lambrinidou, from Virginia Tech, says that's a problem because people need that information to take action.

LAMBRINIDOU: Anybody that has any portion of lead in their service line, they should take precautions.

PUPOVAC: She says that ultimately removing and replacing any lead is the best option, but not everyone can afford it.

LAMBRINIDOU: Alternatively, taking other precautions is a very good idea, and these can include using a lead-certified water filter or bottled water.

PUPOVAC: Kate Gilles asked DC Water for a testing kit¹⁶.

GILLES: Dear Michael Gilles...

PUPOVAC: We were there when she got her results.

GILLES: So it says sample first draw lead level 0.7 and second draw 0.4.

PUPOVAC: Her lead levels were well under the EPA's action level, but she decided¹⁷ to have her service line replaced anyway. It cost $1,400. Jessica Pupovac, NPR News.

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

MONTAGNE: And at npr.org, we have a tool to help you determine if there's a lead service line connected to your home. It's in English and Spanish.

1 lurks   

n.潜在，潜伏；（lurk的复数形式）vi.潜伏，埋伏（lurk的第三人称单数形式）

参考例句：

• Behind his cool exterior lurks a reckless and frustrated person. 在冷酷的外表背后，他是一个鲁莽又不得志的人。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• Good fortune lies within Bad, Bad fortune lurks within good. 福兮祸所倚，祸兮福所伏。 来自互联网

2 byline   

n.署名；v.署名

参考例句：

• His byline was absent as well.他的署名也不见了。
• We wish to thank the author of this article which carries no byline.我们要感谢这篇文章的那位没有署名的作者。

3 outlets   

n.出口( outlet的名词复数 )；经销店；插座；廉价经销店

参考例句：

• The dumping of foreign cotton blocked outlets for locally grown cotton. 外国棉花的倾销阻滞了当地生产的棉花的销路。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• They must find outlets for their products. 他们必须为自己的产品寻找出路。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

4 copper   

n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的

参考例句：

• The students are asked to prove the purity of copper.要求学生们检验铜的纯度。
• Copper is a good medium for the conduction of heat and electricity.铜是热和电的良导体。

5 essentially   

adv.本质上，实质上，基本上

参考例句：

• Really great men are essentially modest.真正的伟人大都很谦虚。
• She is an essentially selfish person.她本质上是个自私自利的人。

6 flake   

v.使成薄片；雪片般落下；n.薄片

参考例句：

• Drain the salmon,discard the skin,crush the bones and flake the salmon with a fork.将鲑鱼沥干，去表皮，粉碎鱼骨并用餐叉子将鱼肉切成小薄片状。
• The paint's beginning to flake.油漆开始剥落了。

7 seep   

v.渗出，渗漏；n.渗漏，小泉，水（油）坑

参考例句：

• My anger began to seep away.我的怒火开始消下去了。
• If meteoric water does not evaporate or run overland,it may seep directly into the ground.如果雨水不从陆地蒸发和流走的话，就可能直接渗入地下。

8 entirely   

ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地

参考例句：

• The fire was entirely caused by their neglect of duty. 那场火灾完全是由于他们失职而引起的。
• His life was entirely given up to the educational work. 他的一生统统献给了教育工作。

9 tightening   

上紧，固定，紧密

参考例句：

• Make sure the washer is firmly seated before tightening the pipe. 旋紧水管之前，检查一下洗衣机是否已牢牢地固定在底座上了。
• It needs tightening up a little. 它还需要再收紧些。

10 toxicity   

n.毒性，毒力

参考例句：

• The hoarse grunt or squeal is characteristic of toxicity.嘶哑的哼声和叫声是中毒的特征。
• Dieldrin is related to aldrin,and its toxicity to earthworms is similar.狄氏剂与艾氏剂有关，对蚯蚓的毒性是相似的。

11 deficits   

n.不足额( deficit的名词复数 )；赤字；亏空；亏损

参考例句：

• The Ministry of Finance consistently overestimated its budget deficits. 财政部一贯高估预算赤字。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• Many of the world's farmers are also incurring economic deficits. 世界上许多农民还在遭受经济上的亏损。 来自辞典例句

12 disorder   

n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调

参考例句：

• When returning back,he discovered the room to be in disorder.回家后，他发现屋子里乱七八糟。
• It contained a vast number of letters in great disorder.里面七零八落地装着许多信件。

13 inspection   

n.检查，审查，检阅

参考例句：

• On random inspection the meat was found to be bad.经抽查，发现肉变质了。
• The soldiers lined up for their daily inspection by their officers.士兵们列队接受军官的日常检阅。

14 pregnancies   

怀孕，妊娠( pregnancy的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Since the wartime population needed replenishment, pregnancies were a good sign. 最后一桩倒不失为好现象，战时人口正该补充。
• She's had three pregnancies in four years. 她在四年中怀孕叁次。

15 inventory   

n.详细目录，存货清单

参考例句：

• Some stores inventory their stock once a week.有些商店每周清点存货一次。
• We will need to call on our supplier to get more inventory.我们必须请供应商送来更多存货。

16 kit   

n.用具包，成套工具；随身携带物

参考例句：

• The kit consisted of about twenty cosmetic items.整套工具包括大约20种化妆用品。
• The captain wants to inspect your kit.船长想检查你的行装。

17 decided   

adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的

参考例句：

• This gave them a decided advantage over their opponents.这使他们比对手具有明显的优势。
• There is a decided difference between British and Chinese way of greeting.英国人和中国人打招呼的方式有很明显的区别。