The Nature of Poetry

 　　Poetry has been produced by every civilization in history, and it shows no sign of losing its power in our time. Ours may be, as we are often told, a prosaic¹ age or a scientific age, but it is also an age in which a great quantity of poetry is written. It may ultimately prove to be one of the great eras of poetic² creation. The remarkable³ durability⁴ of the poetic tradition and the intensification⁵ of poetic composition in times of critical transition—the Renaissance⁶ and the twentieth century—indicate that poetry is closely related to mankind's deepest concerns. It not only records and comments on events, but also helps define our responses to them. Its special province is emotion—what Henry James once called "the felt sense of life."

　　One source of poetry's viability⁷ is its remarkable power to adapt to changing circumstances. As it once took in its stride the great exploring carried out in the astonishing ocean-going vessels⁸ of the fifteenth century, so it has now assimilated the airplane and the rocket. But poetry can accommodate itself to new ways of living because it is also an expression of the unchanging and universal essence of human experience.

　　One result of poetry's constant stretching and shifting to cover the elastic⁹ shape of life is the appearance of new forms of expression without loss of the old ones. E. E. Cummings has done startling things with the shape of language without preventing anyone else's writing in traditional verse patterns. Still the nature of poetry is unchanged by its growing diversity of forms. We may still define it as the interpretive dramatization of experience in metrical language.

　　Poetry shares many qualities with other forms of writing, but it also has many distinctive¹⁰ characteristics which present certain initial difficulties to the reader. Hence we are concerned in this handbook with developing skill in reading. Here is a fairly simple, well-known poem that will give us an opportunity at the outset to observe both the similarities and differences between poetry and other writing:

　　Winter

　　When icicles hang by the wall,

　　And Dick the shepherd blows his nail,

　　And Tom bears logs into the hall,

　　And milk comes frozen home in pail,

　　When blood is nipped, and ways be foul¹¹,

　　Then nightly sings the staring owl¹²,

　　To-whit!

　　To-who!—a merry note,

　　While greasy¹³ Joan doth keel the pot.

　　When all aloud the wind doth blow,

　　And coughing drowns the parson’s saw,

　　And birds sit brooding in the snow,

　　And Marian’s nose looks red and raw,

　　When roasted crabs¹⁴ hiss¹⁵ in the bowl,

　　Then nightly sings the staring owl,

　　To-whit!

　　To-who!—a merry note,

　　While greasy Joan doth keel the pot.

　　This poem, like most, is written in normal, clear English sentences. Our first concern is to understand the plain sense of these sentences, using the poet’s punctuation¹⁶ and our own knowledge of grammar and sentence structure as guides. In our example each stanza¹⁷ consists of a single sentence, the subject and verb of which are "the staring owl . . . sings." The larger part of each sentence, though, consists of a series of adverbial clauses introduced by "when,” and containing specific glimpses of a winter scene. These details acquire great emphasis from their position at the beginning of the sentences and from the parallel grammatical structures that convey them so that the major interest in the poem lies in the vivid sense of the winter scene it gives us. Thus we are interested not only in the plain sense of the sentences, but also in the grammatical and structural¹⁸ peculiarities¹⁹ that contribute to the meaning of the poem.

　　Obviously we must know the meaning of each word; sometimes we shall have to use the dictionary to look up unfamiliar²⁰ words or to discover a usual sense of a familiar one. In the ninth line, keel means to stir the contents of a kettle to keep it from boiling over. In the eleventh line, saw means a pithy²¹ saying, a platitude²². Since it is not a very flattering term, it helps us detect the speaker's attitude toward the parson.

　　Poetry differs from some kinds of prose in that it is usually more concrete and specific. That is, it communicates experiences, emotions, attitudes, and propositions by dealing²³ with a particular situation or event that implicitly²⁴ embodies²⁵ abstract generalizations²⁶. In "Winter" the poet presents a number of particulars that give the reader a more vivid sense of winter weather than such a flat statement as "It was cold" could do. Like other literature, poetry uses a dramatic method in the sense that it acts out whatever ideas it conveys.

　　Poetry often uses an imagined dramatic situation which can be defined by the answers to some or all of these questions: Who is speaking? To whom? Under what circumstances? What is the speaker's attitude toward the subject of his discourse²⁷? Toward his audience? Sometimes quotation²⁸ marks indicate that the poem consists of the words of a fictional²⁹ speaker, but their absence does not mean that the poet has not imagined a character who speaks the lines. “Winter " is the comment of a person who knows servant life; he sees the life of a manor³⁰ house from below stairs. He is an acute, observer who makes fun of discomfort³¹, and who surely has his tongue in his cheek when he moves from the observation of icy air and clogged³² roads to the assertion that the owl cry is a merry note. He is not particularly respectful when he calls the parson’s preaching a "saw" or when he calls attention to Marian's inflamed³³ nose and Joan’s greasiness³⁴.

　　Poetry usually includes some element of narrative³⁵; this story, overt³⁶ or im?plied³⁷, may be the matter of chief interest in the poem, or it may be the means of conveying an attitude or a proposition. In "Winter" the narrative element is small, although we do get a sense of action in a specific setting.

　　Poetry communicates in many ways at once. The several means of com?munication interact with each other—and may reinforce, qualify, or counteract³⁸ each other—to produce a net effect which is greater than the impact of the sev?eral components³⁹ taken separately. Our example has shown how the sentence structure, the concreteness of detail, the meanings and associations of words, and the implied dramatic situation all contribute to the total effect of the poem. The remainder of our discussion will consider in more detail how these ele?ments and others are fused to produce the whole poem.

1 prosaic   

adj.单调的，无趣的

参考例句：

• The truth is more prosaic.真相更加乏味。
• It was a prosaic description of the scene.这是对场景没有想象力的一个描述。

2 poetic   

adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的

参考例句：

• His poetic idiom is stamped with expressions describing group feeling and thought.他的诗中的措辞往往带有描写群体感情和思想的印记。
• His poetic novels have gone through three different historical stages.他的诗情小说创作经历了三个不同的历史阶段。

3 remarkable   

adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的

参考例句：

• She has made remarkable headway in her writing skills.她在写作技巧方面有了长足进步。
• These cars are remarkable for the quietness of their engines.这些汽车因发动机没有噪音而不同凡响。

4 durability   

n.经久性，耐用性

参考例句：

• Nylons have the virtue of durability.尼龙丝袜有耐穿的优点。

5 intensification   

n.激烈化，增强明暗度；加厚

参考例句：

• The intensification of the immunological response represents the body's natural defense. 增强免疫反应代表身体的自然保卫。 来自辞典例句
• Agriculture in the developing nations is not irreversibly committed, to a particular pattern of intensification. 发展中国家的农业并没有完全为某种集约化形式所束缚。 来自辞典例句

6 renaissance   

n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴

参考例句：

• The Renaissance was an epoch of unparalleled cultural achievement.文艺复兴是一个文化上取得空前成就的时代。
• The theme of the conference is renaissance Europe.大会的主题是文艺复兴时期的欧洲。

7 viability   

n.存活(能力)

参考例句：

• What is required to achieve or maintain such viability? 要达到或维持这种生存能力需要什么？
• Scientists are experimenting to find ways to ensure the viability of seeds for even longer periods of time. 正如我们所说，科学家正在试验努力寻找让种子的生命力更加延长的方法。

8 vessels   

n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人

参考例句：

• The river is navigable by vessels of up to 90 tons. 90 吨以下的船只可以从这条河通过。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• All modern vessels of any size are fitted with radar installations. 所有现代化船只都有雷达装置。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

9 elastic   

n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的

参考例句：

• Rubber is an elastic material.橡胶是一种弹性材料。
• These regulations are elastic.这些规定是有弹性的。

10 distinctive   

adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的

参考例句：

• She has a very distinctive way of walking.她走路的样子与别人很不相同。
• This bird has several distinctive features.这个鸟具有几种突出的特征。

11 foul   

adj.污秽的；邪恶的；v.弄脏；妨害；犯规；n.犯规

参考例句：

• Take off those foul clothes and let me wash them.脱下那些脏衣服让我洗一洗。
• What a foul day it is!多么恶劣的天气！

12 owl   

n.猫头鹰，枭

参考例句：

• Her new glasses make her look like an owl.她的新眼镜让她看上去像只猫头鹰。
• I'm a night owl and seldom go to bed until after midnight.我睡得很晚，经常半夜后才睡觉。

13 greasy   

adj. 多脂的，油脂的

参考例句：

• He bought a heavy-duty cleanser to clean his greasy oven.昨天他买了强力清洁剂来清洗油污的炉子。
• You loathe the smell of greasy food when you are seasick.当你晕船时，你会厌恶油腻的气味。

14 crabs   

n.蟹( crab的名词复数 )；阴虱寄生病；蟹肉v.捕蟹( crab的第三人称单数 )

参考例句：

• As we walked along the seashore we saw lots of tiny crabs. 我们在海岸上散步时看到很多小蟹。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• The fish and crabs scavenge for decaying tissue. 鱼和蟹搜寻腐烂的组织为食。 来自《简明英汉词典》

15 hiss   

v.发出嘶嘶声；发嘘声表示不满

参考例句：

• We can hear the hiss of air escaping from a tire.我们能听到一只轮胎的嘶嘶漏气声。
• Don't hiss at the speaker.不要嘘演讲人。

16 punctuation   

n.标点符号，标点法

参考例句：

• My son's punctuation is terrible.我儿子的标点符号很糟糕。
• A piece of writing without any punctuation is difficult to understand.一篇没有任何标点符号的文章是很难懂的。

17 stanza   

n.（诗）节，段

参考例句：

• We omitted to sing the second stanza.我们漏唱了第二节。
• One young reporter wrote a review with a stanza that contained some offensive content.一个年轻的记者就歌词中包含有攻击性内容的一节写了评论。

18 structural   

adj.构造的，组织的，建筑（用）的

参考例句：

• The storm caused no structural damage.风暴没有造成建筑结构方面的破坏。
• The North American continent is made up of three great structural entities.北美大陆是由三个构造单元组成的。

19 peculiarities   

n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪

参考例句：

• the cultural peculiarities of the English 英国人的文化特点
• He used to mimic speech peculiarities of another. 他过去总是模仿别人讲话的特点。

20 unfamiliar   

adj.陌生的，不熟悉的

参考例句：

• I am unfamiliar with the place and the people here.我在这儿人地生疏。
• The man seemed unfamiliar to me.这人很面生。

21 pithy   

adj.(讲话或文章)简练的

参考例句：

• Many of them made a point of praising the film's pithy dialogue.他们中很多人特别赞扬了影片精炼的对白。
• His pithy comments knocked the bottom out of my argument.他精辟的评论驳倒了我的论点。

22 platitude   

n.老生常谈，陈词滥调

参考例句：

• The talk is no more than a platitude. 这番话无非是老生常谈。
• His speech is full of platitude. 他的讲话充满了陈词滥调。

23 dealing   

n.经商方法，待人态度

参考例句：

• This store has an excellent reputation for fair dealing.该商店因买卖公道而享有极高的声誉。
• His fair dealing earned our confidence.他的诚实的行为获得我们的信任。

24 implicitly   

adv. 含蓄地, 暗中地, 毫不保留地

参考例句：

• Many verbs and many words of other kinds are implicitly causal. 许多动词和许多其他类词都蕴涵着因果关系。
• I can trust Mr. Somerville implicitly, I suppose? 我想，我可以毫无保留地信任萨莫维尔先生吧？

25 embodies   

v.表现( embody的第三人称单数 )；象征；包括；包含

参考例句：

• The new treaty embodies the aspirations of most nonaligned countries. 新条约体现了大多数不结盟国家的愿望。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• This document embodies the concern of the government for the deformity. 这个文件体现了政府对残疾人的关怀。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

26 generalizations   

一般化( generalization的名词复数 )； 普通化； 归纳； 概论

参考例句：

• But Pearlson cautions that the findings are simply generalizations. 但是波尔森提醒人们，这些发现是简单的综合资料。 来自英汉非文学 - 生命科学 - 大脑与疾病
• They were of great service in correcting my jejune generalizations. 他们纠正了我不成熟的泛泛之论，帮了我大忙。

27 discourse   

n.论文，演说；谈话；话语；vi.讲述，著述

参考例句：

• We'll discourse on the subject tonight.我们今晚要谈论这个问题。
• He fell into discourse with the customers who were drinking at the counter.他和站在柜台旁的酒客谈了起来。

28 quotation   

n.引文，引语，语录；报价，牌价，行情

参考例句：

• He finished his speech with a quotation from Shakespeare.他讲话结束时引用了莎士比亚的语录。
• The quotation is omitted here.此处引文从略。

29 fictional   

adj.小说的，虚构的

参考例句：

• The names of the shops are entirely fictional.那些商店的名字完全是虚构的。
• The two authors represent the opposite poles of fictional genius.这两位作者代表了天才小说家两个极端。

30 manor   

n.庄园，领地

参考例句：

• The builder of the manor house is a direct ancestor of the present owner.建造这幢庄园的人就是它现在主人的一个直系祖先。
• I am not lord of the manor,but its lady.我并非此地的领主，而是这儿的女主人。

31 discomfort   

n.不舒服，不安，难过，困难，不方便

参考例句：

• One has to bear a little discomfort while travelling.旅行中总要忍受一点不便。
• She turned red with discomfort when the teacher spoke.老师讲话时她不好意思地红着脸。

32 clogged   

（使）阻碍( clog的过去式和过去分词 )； 淤滞

参考例句：

• The narrow streets were clogged with traffic. 狭窄的街道上交通堵塞。
• The intake of gasoline was stopped by a clogged fuel line. 汽油的注入由于管道阻塞而停止了。

33 inflamed   

adj.发炎的，红肿的v.（使）变红，发怒，过热( inflame的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• His comments have inflamed teachers all over the country. 他的评论激怒了全国教师。
• Her joints are severely inflamed. 她的关节严重发炎。 来自《简明英汉词典》

34 greasiness   

n.多脂，油腻，阿谀

参考例句：

• Gelatin, froth or powder suitable greasiness, property and neutral flesh. 凝胶、泡沫或粉末适合油性、混合性及中性肌肤。 来自互联网
• Clothes cleaner cleans away all greasiness By just a single Brushing. 擦衣净，各类油污，一擦就灵。 来自互联网

35 narrative   

n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的

参考例句：

• He was a writer of great narrative power.他是一位颇有记述能力的作家。
• Neither author was very strong on narrative.两个作者都不是很善于讲故事。

36 overt   

adj.公开的，明显的，公然的

参考例句：

• His opponent's intention is quite overt.他的对手的意图很明显。
• We should learn to fight with enemy in an overt and covert way.我们应学会同敌人做公开和隐蔽的斗争。

37 plied   

v.使用（工具）( ply的过去式和过去分词 )；经常供应（食物、饮料）；固定往来；经营生意

参考例句：

• They plied me with questions about my visit to England. 他们不断地询问我的英国之行。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• They plied us with tea and cakes. 他们一个劲儿地让我们喝茶、吃糕饼。 来自《简明英汉词典》

38 counteract   

vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消

参考例句：

• The doctor gave him some medicine to counteract the effect of the poison.医生给他些药解毒。
• Our work calls for mutual support.We shouldn't counteract each other's efforts.工作要互相支持，不要互相拆台。

39 components   

（机器、设备等的）构成要素，零件，成分； 成分( component的名词复数 )； [物理化学]组分； [数学]分量； （混合物的）组成部分

参考例句：

• the components of a machine 机器部件
• Our chemistry teacher often reduces a compound to its components in lab. 在实验室中化学老师常把化合物分解为各种成分。