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(单词翻译:双击或拖选)
(一)ISSUE作文十大论证技巧
将ISSUE作文写长的一个关键办法是展开有效的论证。试想,如果一篇议论文只有孤零零的几个要点,没有充分的论证,这篇文章是不可能写长的。
常用的论证方法有十种,包括:因果关系论证法(cause-effect)、引用权威论证法(authority)、反证法(reduction to absurdity)、列举特征式论证法(signs)、统计数据论证法(statistics)、归纳推理论证法(induction)、诉诸常识法(common sense)、演绎推理论证法(deduction)、类比论证法(analogy)、定义法(definition)。将各论证方法的首字母缩写组合起来,即为“CARSSICDAD”。
下面将这十大论证方法一一讲解。首先,有必要将下面讲解所涉及的概念解释一下。每一个论证方法将按照论点、论据和推理依据的顺序讲解。大家都知道,凡是议论文必然有论点、论据和论证三要素。论点和论据好理解,而论证就是用论据支持论点的过程。但用论据支持论点是否有效,关键在于由论点到论据有没有足够的推理依据。推理依据不成立,论证就是无效论证。
这里顺便讲一下ARGUMENT的解题思路:每一道ARGUMENT题目本身都是一个从论据到论点的论证过程:其中有观点,有论据。这个从论据到论点的论证过程会出现诸多大大小小逻辑链条。只要我们能证明ARGUMENT题目中的论者在任何一个逻辑链条上出了问题,那么,其推理/论证就不能成立。所以,对于ARGUMENT,我们的任务只有一个:从两到三个方面证明题目在哪些逻辑链条上出了问题,以至于其由论据到论点/结论的推理依据不成立。而ARGUMENT所有的分析切入点,就是这里将要谈到的十大论证技巧。正是在这十大论证技巧里面,大家完全可以发现ISSUE和ARGUMENT两种不同写作任务之间互济相通的乐趣。
一、演绎推理论证法
将一个具体的事例运用到一个一般性原则从而得出结论。例如:
论点 Demand for this product will go up.
论据 The price of the product is sliding.
推理依据 Whenever prices of a product go down,demand for it rises.
(说明:由论据“The price of the product is sliding”推出论点“Demand for this product will go up”,这个过程是否有效取决于推理依据“Whenever prices of a product go down,demand for
it rises”是否成立。下面每一种论证方法都是如此。)
二、定义法
界定一个概念的关键内涵;或者认定某个事物符合某个定义,从而得出结论。例如:
论据 Radical feminists lack family values.
推理依据 Family values characterize the good citizen.
三、因果关系论证法
将一个判断放入一个因果关系中,指出它或者是原因,或者是结果。例如:
论点 The Internet may be causing depression.
推理依据 There are no other reasons for the group’s depression.
四、归纳推理论证法
从若干个具体事例中推出共性的一般结论。例如:
论点 Everyone likes the movie.
论据 I know three people who like the movie.
推理依据 Three examples are enough.
五、列举特征式论证法
指出某事物发生或者存在的征候或迹象。例如:
论点 The child has chickenpox.
论据 The child has red spots.
推理依据 These spots are signs of chickenpox.
六、类比论证法
用我们已知的、熟悉的事物同未知的、不熟悉的事物加以比较,并用前者的情况解释后者的情况。分为三种:纵向类比(过去的事物同现在的、同一类事物的类比)、横向类比(同一时期、同一类事物之间的类比)、比喻式类比(不同类别事物之间的类比)。例如:
1.纵向类比(Historical Analogy)
论点 Many people will die of SARS.
论据 Many people died of the Black Death.
推理依据 SARS and Black Death are similar.
2.横向类比(Literal Analogy)
论点 China should have its fighter carriers.
论据 A neighboring country has a powerful carrier fleet.
推理依据 The two countries are similar enough to draw such a comparison.
3.比喻式类比(Metaphorical Analogy)
论点 Reading a difficult book should take time.
论据 Digesting a large meal takes time.
推理依据 Reading and eating are sufficiently4 alike to be compared.
七、引用权威论证法
引用公认的权威,或者论证自己就是权威从而对自己的观点加以论证。例如:
论点 China’s economy will grow 8 percent this year.
论据 Professors and scientists say so.
推理依据 These experts are reliable.
八、诉诸常识法
利用人们的常识[包括:普遍性的价值观念(universal values such as freedom,equality,supremacy of life,dignity and pursuit of happiness)、人们的普遍动机(public motives:desire for love,shelter,food,security,wealth,knowledge,etc.)、生活常识(widely-accepted ideas and practices in life)]进行论证。例如:
1.诉诸普遍性的价值观念(Universal Values)
论点 The university curriculum should be multicultural5.
论据 A multicultural curriculum will contribute to equality and acceptance.
推理依据 You value equality and acceptance.
2.诉诸普遍动机(Public Motives)
论据 The candidate can help you get job security and safe neighborhoods.
推理依据 You want job security and safe neighborhoods.
3.诉诸生活常识(Widely-accepted Ideas and Practices in Life)
论点 She was very kind to me.
论据 She treated me with the best tea she had.
推理依据 A treatment with the best tea is an expression of kindness.
九、反证法
假设一个观点是正确的,然而却推导出荒谬的结论。例如:
论据 With only industry but without thrift,the person will end up bankrupt.
推理依据 An industrious person ending up bankrupt sounds absurd.
十、统计数据论证法
提供数据,以资论证。例如:
论点 We should end the current poverty-relief program.
论据 It costs $45 million per year.
推理依据 This is too much;it proves we should end it.
在实际的论证过程中,我们可能并不需要给出推理依据,而只是直接拿论据去证明论点。比如,在演绎推理法的例子中,如果我们想证明论点“Demand for this product will go up”的正确性,我们通常只需给出论据“The price of the product is sliding”就行了。这是因为读者的思想意识一般都已经有了,或者都已经认可了“Whenever prices of a product go down,demand for it rises”这个逻辑前提。但有时为了充分说明问题,作者也需要将推理依据及其合理性加以说明,并给出证明。比如,在引用权威法的例子中,为了证明论点“China’s economy will grow percent this year”,我们会首先给出论据“Professors and scientists say so”。但为了使我们的论证更为可信,我们会进一步说明并证明推理依据“These experts are reliable”。
(二)新版ISSUE题库各题目分析指要
关于新版ISSUE题库所有题目的题型分类和题目分析的说明:
1.在阅读本部分内容之前,请务必首先阅读、熟悉本书第一章的所有内容,以便更好理解每个题目分析的步骤、格式以及提纲内容。
2.所有题目的归类和分析都是本着简单、明了、易分析的原则进行的。对于平行式多角度分析题,在指出它们一般可归入的类别后,只按照一个题目类型展开分析。对所有的套叠式多角度分析题所包括的题目类型进行了说明,并对其中有一定难度的进行了详细的分析。
3.在将每个题目归入各自类别之后,并不按照“先提正、再求反、因人因题合反散”的顺序展开分析,而是直接从每一类题目的分析切入点入手,分析出写作思路的核心内容,然后再整理出一个简单的写作提纲。“先提正、再求反、因人因题合反散”的顺序适合同学们自己尝试对题目进行分析时,为自己提供一个清楚的分析步骤。
4.所有这些题目的写作提纲只可用来参考,以帮助大家运用“1+5”写作模型整理出自己的分析思路和写作提纲。在复习准备时间特别紧迫,一时间无法对全部的ISSUE题目进行自己的分析和整理的情况下,考生可以参考下面的ISSUE分析思路和写作提纲,但原则上不鼓励完全照搬这些提纲;读者最好给它们加上一点儿自己的东西(比如自己独有的文章开头和结尾段,增减或变更一两个分析和论证要点等),然后再放心应用。这是因为如果大家都按照本书的ISSUE提纲来写,大量完全一样的观点和分析思路有可能会招来ETS的“特别关注”而被指责为抄袭。尽管由于考试时大家随机抽取的题目以及写作时各自语言表述会有差异,使得完全一致的可能性极低,但为稳妥起见,还是稍作变化为好。这也是我不把这些分析思路和提纲写得过细,并且全部都用中文书写的原因。而且,本书的主要目的不只是为大家提供写作提纲,更是为了启发同学们学会整理、分析自己的写作思路。大家对这一点应该非常清楚。实际上,同学们在对每个ISSUE题目的分析、思想要点都非常熟悉之后,甚至可以抛开本书有关ISSUE题目的分析,完全按照自己的思路来写。这才是本书整个ISSUE部分讲解的最终目的。
The Pool of Issue Topics
This page contains the Issue topics for the analytical9 writing section of the GRE revised General Test. When you take the test, you will be presented with one Issue topic from this pool. Each Issue topic consists of an issue statement or statements followed by specific task instructions that tell you how to respond to the issue. The wording of some topics in the test might vary slightly from what is presented here. Also, because there may be multiple versions of some topics with similar or identical wording but with different task instructions, it is very important to read your test topic and its specific task directions carefully and respond to the wording as it appears in the actual test.
1. As people rely more and more on technology to solve problems, the ability of humans to think for themselves will surely deteriorate10. (参考第26、64题)
Write a response in which you discuss the extent to which you agree or disagree with the statement and explain your reasoning for the position you take. In developing and supporting your position, you should consider ways in which the statement might or might not hold true and explain how these considerations shape your position.
题型归类:事实类。
题目分析
(1)能否从公认的原则或事实中推出相反的判断?
人们的生命和生活质量还是因为科技进步而有了明显的改善和提高。比如,人们的衣食住行条件、受教育水平、平均寿命、医疗保障水平、应付自然灾害的能力等都得到了极大的改善。不仅如此,所有这些也使得人类有可能摆脱为生存而进行的挣扎,转而对自己的内心、对周围所处的世界进行更为冷静的反思。
(2)能否举出相反的事例?
(大家可以举出无数身边发生的例子。此处从略。)
提纲提要
论点 论者的观点失于简单
正:现代社会的确出现了科技虽然发展了,但人却变得更加短视和愚钝的现象。比如,科技进步和经济全球化带来的种族和文化冲突、核战争威胁、国家间日益扩大的贫富差距、环境污染(如全球变暖、核泄漏)等。人类社会因为科技的发展而变得似乎更不安全了。那么,科技到底是让我们更聪明了还是更愚蠢了呢?
反:但是,人们的生命和生活质量还是因为科技进步而有了明显的改善和提高。比如,人们的衣食住行条件、受教育水平、平均寿命、医疗保障水平、应付自然灾害的能力等都得到了极大的改善。不仅如此,所有这些也使得人类有可能摆脱为生存而进行的挣扎,转而对自己的内心、对周围所处的世界进行更为冷静的反思。
散:科技不能解决人类面临的一切问题。部分问题(比如,种族和文化冲突、战争、国际恐怖主义、环境污染等)的解决并不只取决于科技进步的大小,而是取决于人类是否有足够的宽容、同情心和自我反省意识。
(三)ARGUMENT的开头写作技巧
ARGUMENT作文的开头要比ISSUE作文的开头简单、直接。一般有下列三种最为常见的形式。
一、 客套式
这种开头由两部分组成。其一,对要评估的推理论证作出纯粹礼节式的肯定。其二,指出该论证存在的推理问题。比如下面一篇ETS提供的6分ARGUMENT范文的开头(全文请参见本书附录7):
The notion that protective gear reduces the injuries suffered in accidents seems at first glance to be an obvious conclusion. After all, it is the intent of these products to either prevent accidents from occurring in the first place or to reduce the injuries suffered by the wearer should an accident occur. However, the conclusion that investing in high quality protective gear greatly reduces the risk of being severely11 injured in an accident may mask other (and potentially more significant) causes of injuries and may inspire people to over invest financially and psychologically in protective gear.
很显然,However前面的若干行文字都是客套话;而However之后的内容才是作者对题目中推理的评价,即题目中的推理忽视了真实的原因,导致人们对保护器具的盲目投资和依赖。
这种开头是ETS提供的范文中最为常见的开头方式。
二、开门见山式
这种开头直截了当、直奔主题。请看下面一篇ETS提供的5分ARGUMENT范文的开头。原题目如下:
The following appeared as a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.
Five years ago, we residents of Morganton voted to keep the publicly owned piece of land known as Scott Woods in a natural, undeveloped state. Our thinking was that, if no shopping centers or houses were built there, Scott Woods would continue to benefit our community as a natural parkland. But now that our town planning committee wants to purchase the land and build a school there, we should reconsider this issue. If the land becomes a school site, no shopping centers or houses can be built there, and substantial acreage would probably be devoted12 to athletic13 fields. There would be no better use of land in our community than this, since a large majority of our children participate in sports, and Scott Woods would continue to benefit our community as natural parkland.
文章的开头段是这样的:
The author’s argument is weak. Though he believes Scott Woods benefits the community as an undeveloped park, he also thinks a school should be built on it. Obviously the author is not aware of the development that comes with building a school besides the facilities devoted to learning or sports.
这种开头干脆利落,直接给出对题目中推理的评价。
三、罗列要点式
这种开头一般先将题目中推理/论证的主要论点和论据总结一下,然后再说出作者对该推理/论证的评价。请看下面这篇ETS提供的6分ARGUMENT范文的开头(这篇文章的题目同上面刚刚谈过的开门见山式开头中所举例子的题目是一样的):
This letter to the editor begins by stating the reasons the residents of Morganton voted to keep Scott Woods in an undeveloped state. The letter states that the entire community could benefit from an undeveloped parkland. The residents of the town wanted to ensure that no shopping centers or houses would be built there. This, in turn, would provide everyone in the community with a valuable resource, a natural park.
The letter then continues by addressing the issue of building a school on the land. The author reasons that this would also benefit the entire community as a natural parkland since much of the land would be devoted to athletic fields. The author of the letter comes to the conclusion that building a school on the land would be the best thing for everyone in the community.
This letter is a one-sided argument about the best use of the land known as Scott Woods. The author may be a parent whose child would benefit from a new school, a teacher who thinks a school would boost the community, or just a resident of Morganton. Regardless of who the author is, there are many aspects of this plan that he or she has overlooked or chosen to ignore.
该文作者用了两个段落来陈述题目中的推理,然后在第三自然段评价了题目中的推理。
好文章开头有三要素:有趣、短、能提领全文。因为ARGUMENT写作的主要任务是对别人的推理和论证是否可信作一番评估,所以写作风格应平实、稳健。由于受文章语气的限制,开头三要素中的“有趣”较难做到;而“短”和“能提领全文”是很容易做到的。
上面所举的三个开头段的例子都能做到“能提领全文”。但是,除了第二个例子还算比较简洁外,例一和例三都显得比较拖沓。尤其是例三,可以算是一个失败的开头段——它好像是账房先生的明细账,有点儿过于琐碎了。
在给定的30分钟时间内写一篇400词—500词的ARGUMENT作文是一件较有挑战性的工作。但例三的长度至少是全文长度的三分之一,这样的比例显然不合适。
因此,我们的结论是:
其一,ETS的作文批改人员不太关注文章的形式,比如文章到底该怎样开头。他们更关注文章所显示的考生的分析能力、对问题复杂性的识别和解释能力以及论证能力。
其二,我们完全可以在某些方面做得更专业,比如写出简短、精炼的文章开头段。简短、精炼的开头必然比拖沓、冗长的开头更有利于拿高分。如果例三这样写的话,效果会更好一些:
According to the letter, residents of Morganton first wanted to keep Scott Woods as a natural undeveloped parkland.
But when the town planning committee proposed to set up a school on the land, the letter writer called on Morganton residents to embrace the idea, arguing this might be the best use of the land.
This letter is a one-sided argument, because there are many aspects that the letter-writer has overlooked or chosen to ignore.
所以,对于本书所附的ETS提供的5分和6分范文,大家要重点参考它们的分析和论证技巧,而不要去模仿开头和结尾的形式。
永远要牢记文章开头三要素:有趣、短、能提领全文;文章结尾三要素:有趣、短、耐人寻味。即使我们不能完全达到这些要求,也应尽量去做。
(四)ARGUMENT的结尾写作技巧
同样是受ARGUMENT作文平实、稳健风格的限制,ARGUMENT的结尾样式也应简单。一般也有三种形式:
一、客套式
同客套式开头一样,客套式结尾也由两部分组成。首先,礼节性地肯定题目中的推理;然后指出该论证推理中的问题。请看下面这篇ETS提供的6分ARGUMENT范文的结尾(全文请参见本书附录七):
The argument for safety gear based on emergency room statistics could provide important information and potentially saves lives. Before conclusions about the amount and kinds of investments that should be made in gear are reached, however, a more complete understanding of the benefits are needed. After all, a false confidence in ineffective gear could be just as dangerous as no gear at all.
本段中的第一句完全是客套,随后的几句则概括了题目中的推理存在的主要问题。
二、提出希望、建议式
这样的结尾只是简单地指出题目中推理/论证的问题,并给出如何改进的希望和建议。请看下面这篇ETS提供的6分ARGUMENT范文的结尾(全文请参见本书附录7):
The paragraph given merely scratches the surface of what must be said about this University in order to entice14 students and to convince them that this is the best place to obtain a quality education. Much more work is needed by the public relations department before this can be made into a four-color brochure and handed out to prospective15 students.
这种形式的结尾还可以更简单(一句话就行了),比如:
Only after evaluating all the facts might students strongly agree that the University of Claria is one of the best universities in the world.
三、没有结尾段
ARGUMENT作文可以没有结尾段。在将题目中的推理/论证的缺陷和谬误一一陈述清楚之后,文章也就戛然而止。大家可参看本书附录7中ARGUMENT部分的范例一,其中的那篇5分作文就没有任何结尾段。
点击收听单词发音
1 radical | |
n.激进份子,原子团,根号;adj.根本的,激进的,彻底的 | |
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2 feminists | |
n.男女平等主义者,女权扩张论者( feminist的名词复数 ) | |
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3 depressed | |
adj.沮丧的,抑郁的,不景气的,萧条的 | |
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4 sufficiently | |
adv.足够地,充分地 | |
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5 multicultural | |
adj.融合多种文化的,多种文化的 | |
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6 premier | |
adj.首要的;n.总理,首相 | |
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7 industrious | |
adj.勤劳的,刻苦的,奋发的 | |
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8 thrifty | |
adj.节俭的;兴旺的;健壮的 | |
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9 analytical | |
adj.分析的;用分析法的 | |
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10 deteriorate | |
v.变坏;恶化;退化 | |
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11 severely | |
adv.严格地;严厉地;非常恶劣地 | |
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12 devoted | |
adj.忠诚的,忠实的,热心的,献身于...的 | |
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13 athletic | |
adj.擅长运动的,强健的;活跃的,体格健壮的 | |
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14 entice | |
v.诱骗,引诱,怂恿 | |
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15 prospective | |
adj.预期的,未来的,前瞻性的 | |
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