8.The Worker as Creator or Machine
Erich Fromm
1 Unless man exploits others, he has to work in order to live. However primitive and simple his method of work may be, by the very fact of production, he has risen above the animal kingdom; rightly has he been defined as "the animal that produces." But work is not only an inescapable necessity for man. Work is also his liberator from nature, his creator as a social and independent being. In the process of work, that is, the molding and changing of nature outside of himself, man molds and changes himself. He emerges from nature by mastering her; he develops his powers of co-operation, of reason, his sense of beauty. He separates himself from nature, from the original unity with her, but at the same time unites himself with her again as her master and builder. The more his work develops, the more his individuality develops. In molding nature and re-creating her, he learns to make use of his powers, increasing his skill and creativeness. Whether we think of the beautiful paintings in the caves of Southern France, the ornaments on weapons among primitive people, the statues and temples of Greece, the cathedrals of the Middle Ages, the chairs and tables made by skilled craftsmen, or the cultivation of flowers, trees or corn by peasants--all are expressions of the creative transformation of nature by man's reason and skill.
2 In Western history, craftsmanship, especially as it developed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, constitutes one of the peaks in the evolution of creative work. Work was not only a useful activity, but one which carried with it a profound satisfaction. The main features of craftsmanship have been very lucidly expressed by C. W. Mills. "There is no ulterior motive in work other than the product being made and the processes of its creation. The details of dally work are meaningful because they are not detached in the worker's mind from the product of the work. The worker is free to control his own working action. The craftsman is thus able to learn from his work; and to use and develop his capacities and skills in its prosecution. There is no split of work and play, or work and culture. The craftsman' s way of livelihooddetermines and infuses his entire mode of living."
3 3 With the collapse of the medieval structure, and the beginning of the modern mode of production, the meaning and function of work changed fundamentally, especially in the Protestantcountries. Man, being afraid of his newly won freedom, was obsessed by the need to subdue his doubts and fears by developing a feverish activity. The out-come of this activity, success or failure, decided his salvation, indicating whether he was among the saved or the lost souls. Work, instead of being an activity satisfying in itself and pleasurable, became a duty and an obsession . The more it was possible to gain riches by work, the more it became a pure means to the aim of wealth and success. Work became, in Max Weber's terms, the chief factor in a system of "inner-worldly asceticism ," an answer to man's sense of aloneness and isolation.
4 However, work in this sense existed only for the upper and middle classes, those who could amass some capital and employ the work of others. For the vast majority of those who had only their physical energy to sell, work became nothing but forced labor. The worker in the eighteenth or nineteenth century who had to work sixteen hours if he did not want to starve was not doing it because he served the Lord in this way, nor because his success would show that he was among the "chosen " ones,, but because he was forced to sell his energy to those who had the means of exploiting it. The first centuries of the modern era find the meaning of work divided into that of duty among the middle class, and that of forced labor among those without property.
5 The religious attitude toward work as a duty, which was still so prevalent in the nineteenth century, has been changing considerably in the last decades. Modern man does not know what to do with himself, how to spend his lifetime meaningfully, and he is driven to work in order to avoid an unbearable boredom. But work has ceased to be a moral and religious obligation in the sense of the middle class attitude of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Something new has emerged. Ever-increasing production, the drive to make bigger and better things, have become aims in themselves, new ideals. Work has become alienated from the working person.
6 What happens to the industrial worker? He spends his best energy for seven or eight hours a day in producing "something." He needs his work in order to make a living, but his role is essentially a passive one. He fulfills a small isolated function in a complicated and highly organized process of production, and is never confronted with "his" product as a whole, at least not as a producer, but only as a consumer, provided he has the money to buy "his" product in a store. He is concerned neither with the whole product in its physical aspects nor with its wider economic and social aspects. He is put in a certain place, has to carry out a certain task, but does not participate in the organization or management of the work. He is not interested nor does he know why one produces this, instead of another commodity--what relation it has to the needs of society as a whole. The shoes, the cars, the electric bulbs, are produced by "the enterprise," using the machines. He is a part of the machine, rather than its master as an active agent. The machine, instead of being in his service to do work for him which once had to be performed by sheer physical energy, has become his master. Instead of the machine being the substitute for human energy, man has become a substitute for the machine. His work can be defined as the performance of acts which cannot yet be performedby machines.
7 Work is a means of getting money, not in itself a meaningful human activity. P. Drucker, observing workers in the automobile industry, expresses this idea very succinctly "For the great majority of automobile workers, the only meaning of the job is in the pay check, not in anything connected with the work or the product. Work appears as something unnatural, a disagreeable, meaningless and stultifying condition of getting the pay check, devoid of dignity as well as of importance. No wonder that this puts a premium on slovenly work, on slowdowns , and on other tricks to get the same pay check with less work. No wonder that this results in an unhappy and discontented worker--because a pay check is not enough to base one's self-respect on."
8 This relationship of the worker to his work is an outcome of the whole social organization of which he is a part. Being "employed," he is not an active agent, has no responsibility except the proper performance of the isolated piece of work he is doing, and has little interest except the one of bringing home enough money to support himself and his family. Nothing more is expected of him, or wanted from him. He is part of the equipment hired by capital, and his role and function are determined by this quality of being a piece of equipment. In recent decades, increasing attention has been paid to the psychology of the worker, and to his attitude toward his work, to the "human problem of industry"; but this very formulation is indicative of the underlying attitude; there is a human being spending most of his lifetime at work, and what should be discussed is the "industrial problem of human beings," rather than "the human problem of industry."
9 Most investigations in the field of industrial psychology are concerned with the question of how the productivity of the individual worker can be increased, and how he can be made to work with less friction; psychology has lent its services to "human engineering," an attempt to treat the worker and employee like a machine which runs better when it is well oiled. While Taylor was primarily concerned with a better organization of the technical use of the worker's physical powers, most industrial psychologists are mainly concerned with the manipulation of the worker's psyche The underlying idea can be formulated like this: if he works better when he is happy, then let us make him happy, secure, satisfied, or anything else, provided it raises his output and diminishes friction. In the name of " human relations," the worker is treated with all devices which suit values are recommended in the interest of better relations a completely alienated person; even happiness and human with the public. Thus, for instance, according to Time magazine, one of the best-known American psychiatrists said to a group of fifteen hundred Supermarket executives: "It's going to be an increased satisfaction to our customers if we are happy... It is going to pay off in cold dollars and cents to management, if we could put some of these general principles of values, human relationships, really into practice." One speaks of "human relations" and one means the most inhuman relations, those between alienated automatons ; one speaks of happiness and means the perfect routinization which has driven out the last doubt and all spontaneity
10 The alienated and profoundly unsatisfactory character of work results in two reactions: one, the ideal of complete laziness; the other a deep-seated, though often unconscious hostility toward work and everything and everybody connected with it.
11 It is not difficult to recognize the widespread longing for the state of complete laziness and passivity. Our advertising appeals to it even more than to sex, There are, of course, many useful and labor saving gadgets . But this usefulness often serves only as a rationalization for the appeal to complete passivity and receptivity. A package of breakfast cereal is being advertised as "new--easier to eat." An electric toaster is advertised with these words: "... the most distinctly different toaster in the world! Everything is done for you with this new toaster. You need not even bother to lower the bread. Power-action, through a unique electric motor, gently takes the bread right out of your fingers!" How many courses in languages, or other subjects, are announced with the slogan" effortless learn- ins, no more of the old drudgery." Everybody knows the picture of the elderly couple in the advertisement of a life-insurance company, who have retired at the age of sixty, and spend their life in the complete bliss of having nothing to do except just travel.
12 Radio and television exhibit another element of this yearning for laziness: the idea of "push-button power"; by pushing a button, or turning a knob on my machine, I have the power to produce music, speeches, ball games, and on the television set, to command events of the world to appear before my eyes. The pleasure of driving cars certainly rests partly upon this same satisfaction of the wish for push-button power. By the effortless pushing of a button, a powerful machine is set in motion; little skill and effort are needed to make the driver feel that he is the ruler of space.
13 But there is far more serious and deep-seated reaction to the meaninglessness and boredom of work. It is a hostility toward work which is much less conscious than our craving for laziness and inactivity. Many a businessman feels himself the prisoner of his business and the commodities he sells; he has a feeling of fraudulency about his product and a secret contempt for it. He hates his customers, who force him to put up a show in order to sell. He hates his competitors because they are a threat; his employees as well as his superiors, because he is in a constant competitive fight with them. Most important of all, he hates himself, because he sees his life passing by, without making any sense beyond the momentary intoxication of success. Of course, this hate and contempt for others and for oneself, and for the very things one produces, is mainly unconscious, and only occasionally comes up to awareness in a fleeting thought, which is sufficiently disturbing to be set aside as quickly as possible.
(from A Rhetorical Reader, Invention and Design,by Forrest D. Burt and E. Cleve Want)
第八课工人是创造者还是机器
埃里克弗罗姆
人只要不剥削他人，就得靠劳动来求生存。不论其劳动方式是多么原始，多么简单，仅凭从事生产性劳动这一事实，就足以使人超出动物界。把人定义为"从事生产的动物"是很有道理的。但对于人来说，劳动不仅是必不可少的生存条件。劳动还使他从自然界中解放出来，成为一个不依附于自然界的社会的人。在劳动过程中，即在模铸和改造其自身以外的自然界的过程中，人也模铸和改造了他自己。人由征服自然、驾驭自然才最终达到超出自然的境界，并进而逐步增强了自己的协作能力、思维能力和审美能力。他将自己从自然界，从自己与自然结成的原始统一体中分离出来，同时又以主人翁和建设者的身分重新与自然相结合。人的劳动方式越进步，其个性特征也就发挥得越充分。在塑造和改造自然的过程中，人逐步学会了如何充分利用自己具有的各种能力，增进自己的技艺和创造性。无论是法国南部洞穴中的美丽绘画，原始人所用武器上的纹饰图案，希腊的雕像和神殿，还是中世纪的教堂建筑，能工巧匠制作的桌椅，乃至农民培育出来的花木五谷等等--这些无一不是人利用自己的思维能力与技艺创造性地改造大自然的具体例证。
在西方历史上，手工技艺，尤其是十三、十四世纪中发展起来的手工技艺构成了人类创造性劳动发展史上的一个顶峰。那时的劳动不仅是一项有现实价值的活动，而且是一项给人以巨大的满足的活动。有关手工技艺的主要特征，美国社会学家米尔斯曾作过清楚的说明。他说，"除了劳动者对于被制造的产品和制造产品的生产过程本身的兴趣之外，劳动并无其他的深层动机。日常工作的细枝末节之所以有意义，是因为在劳动者的心目中，它们与劳动的产品密不可分。劳动者不受任何约束地主宰自己的劳动行为。这样，工匠艺人便能通过劳动过程来学习劳动技艺，并且在劳动过程中应用和提高自己的劳动技艺。工作和娱乐、工作和文化活动融为一体。工匠艺人的谋生手段决定并影响着其生活方式。"
随着中世纪社会结构的瓦解和现代生产方式的出现，劳动的社会意义和作用发生了根本性的变化，这一变化在新教国家尤为显著。人们对于自己新近获得的自由感到害怕，而为了克服自己的疑惧，他就必须进行某种狂热的活动。这种活动的结果，或成或败，就决定着他的命运和灵魂的归宿，标志着他死后是将进天堂还是入地狱。于是，劳动便成了一种义务，一种烦恼，而不再是一种能使人满足和愉快的活动。靠劳动发财致富的可能性越大，劳动就越发变成了一种纯粹的升官发财的手段。用马克斯·韦伯的话说，劳动已成为"内心世界禁欲主义"思想体系中的一个主要因素，解决人们内心的寂寞和孤独感的一种办法。
不过，这种意义的劳动也只是对于那些能够积累一些资本并雇用他人劳动的中、上层阶级而言才存在的，而对于那仅有劳动力可供出卖的绝大多数人来说，劳动只不过是一种强迫劳役。十八、十九世纪的工人，若是不想饿死，便得一天劳动十六个小时。他这样做，并不是要以此侍奉上帝，也不是为以工作上的成功来证明他属于"上帝的选民"之列，而是因为他迫于无奈，不得不向那些拥有剥削手段的人出卖自己的劳动力。现代史开初的几个世纪中，劳动的意义划分为两种：对于中产阶级来说是义务，而对于无产者来说则是强迫劳役。
视劳动为一项义务的宗教观念在十九世纪还十分流行，但最近几十年来，这种宗教观念正经历着重大的演变。现代人不知道自己该做些什么，怎样才能有意义地度过自己的一生，只是为了逃避无所事事所造成的寂寞无聊，才被迫去参加劳动。但劳动已不再被人们以十八、十九世纪的中产阶级的那种态度看作是一种道德和宗教上的义务。新的观念产生了。不断地提高生产，追求更大更、好地东西，这些本身已成了劳动的目的，成了新的理想。劳动与劳动者的关系开始异化了。
产业工人的情况又如何呢?他一天要花七八个小时把自己最旺盛的精力用于生产"某种东西"。他需要劳动以求生计，但他在劳动过程中只扮演一个被动的角色。他只在一个复杂的、组织程度很高的生产过程中起一点很小的、孤立的作用，从来没有机会接触到"他的"产品的全貌，至少不能以生产者的身分，而只能以消费者的身分接触到"他的"产品的全貌，即使这样也还需要有一个前提条件，那就是，他得有足够的钱从商店里购买"他所生产出的，，产品。无论对生产出来的完全的成品本身还是其更深远的经济意义和社会意义，他都不用关心。他被安置在一个固定的岗位上，去完成一定的工作任务，而对生产的组织与管理则概不参与。对于为什么要生产这一种产品而不生产另一种产品--该种产品与整个社会需求之间的关系如何，他是既不知晓，也无兴趣知晓。鞋子、汽车、电灯泡等等都是由"工厂"用机器制造出来的。工人只是机器的一个组成部分，不是作为主动操纵者而成为机器的主人。机器不是在为他服务，替他去干过去要完全依靠体力去完成的工作，而是反过来成了他的主人。不是机器替代人力，而是人成了机器的替代物。人的工作被解释为执行目前尚不能由机器完成的动作。
劳动只是一种挣钱的手段，它本身再不是一种有意义的人类活动了。彼得·德鲁克在考察了汽车制造业工人的劳动状况后，用简洁的文字表述了这一观点："对绝大多数汽车工人来说，劳动的唯一的意义就在那张工资支票上，而不在与其所从事的工作或产品有关的任何事情上。劳动似乎是一种很不正常的活动，是一种令人厌恶的、毫无意义的、愚蠢可笑的获取工资支票的条件，既无任何尊严，也无任何重要性。无怪乎工人们要千方百计地偷懒、怠工，并用其他投机取巧的办法，以尽可能少的劳动来换取同样的工资支票；无怪乎这样的劳动既不能给工人带来愉快，也不能让工人感到满足--因为人的自尊不只是建筑在一张工资支票的基础之上。"
工人与劳动的关系乃是工人所属的整个社会结构带来的必然结果。由于工人是"被雇用的"，所以他就不会积极主动地发挥作用。除了按规定完成他自己的那部分孤立的工作任务外，他再无任何其他职责；除了想挣得足够的钱拿回去养家糊口外，他对其他一切事情都不感兴趣。社会对他也没有更高的指望或要求。他只是资本家所雇用的机器设备的一部分，这种作为设备的一部分的性质就决定了其作用和职能。近几十年来，人们已开始越来越关注工人的心理及其对待工作的态度，探讨"工业中人的问题"，但这种提法本身反映了一种不正确的态度；既然是人将一生中的大部分时间用于工作，那么，应该探讨的就不是什么"工业中人的问题"，而是"人的工业问题"。
在工业心理学方面的大多数调查都是关于如何使工人的生产率得以提高，如何能使他少带一些抵触情绪去工作。心理学已用来服务于"人类工程"，即试图把工人和雇员当作机器来对待，认为他们也像机器一样，只要加好油，就能运转得好一些。泰勒主要关心的是如何在工业生产上更好地组织使用工人的体力，而大多数工业心理学家关心的主要是如何左右工人的心灵。可以这样来表达其基本思想：如果他高兴就能工作得好一些的话，那么就让我们使他高兴、安心、满意或别的什么的，只要这样能提高他的产量，减少抵触情绪就行。在"人际关系"的名义下，他们用对一个完全冷漠的人的一切手段去对待一个工人；就是幸福和人们的价值观也是从与公众建立更好的关系这个角度提出来的。例如，据《时代》周刊报导，美国一位最著名的精神病学家对一批1 500名超级市场经理人员说："如果我们是高高兴兴的，我们的顾客就会感到更满意……如果我们真的能把某些有关价值观和人际关系的总的原则付诸实践，那么对资方来说，换来的将是实实在在的金钱。"他们讲的是"人际关系"，指的却是最最非人的关系，冷漠的机器人之间的关系。他们讲的是幸福，指的却是完全机械的重复活动，这种活动使人完全失去了独立的思考和任何的主动性。
劳动的这种冷漠无情，丝毫不能令人满足的性质势必引起两种结果：其一，使人们产生十足的懒惰思想；其二，使人们对劳动及与之有关的一切人和事产生一种根深蒂固的(尽管往往是潜意识的)敌对心理。
不难看出，向往极端的懒散和消极怠工是人们的普遍心理状态。我们的广告对这一点的渲染甚至比对性的渲染更有过之而无不及。当然，确实有许多实用而省力的小玩意，但这种实用性往往只起着使追求十足的消极懒散和坐享其成成为合理化的作用。一包早餐食品在广告中被宣传为"新产品--食用更方便。"一种电烤箱所用的广告词竟是这样的："……最新烤箱，设计独特，举世无匹!有了这种烤箱，一切工作都会自动完成，连放面包也无需您亲自动手，只要一通电，通过一种功能独特的电动机的电力作用就能将面包从您手上轻轻取下!"有多少语言或其他科目的教科书用着这样的宣传口号："学习起来真轻松，完全不必下苦功。"有一家人寿保险公司还作了这么一个家喻户晓的广告画：画上是一对六十岁退休的年老夫妇除旅行度假外，长年无所事事，优哉游哉享清福的欢乐景象。
广播和电视反映着这种追求懒散思想的另一方面，即"键钮万能"的思想。只需按一下按键，或拧一下旋钮，就可以播放出音乐、讲话、球赛实况，或是在电视机上将世界大事收之于眼前。驾驶汽车使人感到愉快，其部分的原因就是由于键钮万能的理想的实现所带来的满足感。只需轻轻一按按钮，便能发动一台大功率的发动机，驾车人无需掌握什么技艺，付出任何努力，便能体会到当空间的主宰的滋味。
然而，劳动变得毫无意义而且令人厌烦之后所带来的另一种结果却还要严重而根深蒂固得多。这就是对劳动的敌对心理。这种心理远不如追求懒散无为那样容易被人们意识到。许多商人觉得自己变成了自己所经营的企业及其所出售的商品的俘虏；他感觉到自己所售商品有骗人的味道，并从内心里蔑视它们。他憎恨顾客，因为是他们迫使他弄虚作假来促销商品；他憎恨竞争对手，因为他们对他构成威胁；他憎恨自己的顾员和上司，因为他与他们永远处于一种互相倾轧的明争暗斗状况。但他最为痛恨的还是他自己，因为他眼见着自己的有生之年，除了赢利而带来一时陶醉之外，都在毫无意义地白白流逝。当然，这种对他人、对自己以及对自己的产品所怀有的憎恨和轻蔑，多半是无意识的，只是偶尔上升到意识中来，但也因憎怒过甚而一闪而过。
(摘自福里斯特D伯特和E克利夫万特 《修辞读物发明与设计》)
词汇(Vocabulary)
cathedral (n.) : any large，imposing church主教座堂，主教大堂；大教堂
peak (n.) : the highest or utmost point of anything；height； maximum最高点，顶点；最高值
lucid (adj.) : clear to the mind；readily understood易懂的；明白的
ulterior (adj.) : beyond what is exprssed，implied，or evident；undisclosed隐蔽的；秘而不宣的
prosecution (n.) : act of prosecuting彻底进行；执行；实行
infuse (v.) : put(quality，idea，etc．)into，as if by pouring；instill；impart逐渐灌输(思想品德等)；把…传授给
protestant (adj.) : of any of the Christian churches as a result of the Reformation新教(徒)的；基督教(徒)的
obsess (v.) : haunt or trouble in mind，esp. to an abnormal degree；preoccupy deeply使分心；使心神困扰(尤指精神反常，着迷)
subdue (v.) : bring into subjection；conquer；vanquish使屈服，征服
asceticism (n.) : the practice or way of life of an ascetic苦行(主义)；禁欲(主义)
succinct (adj.) : clearly and briefly stated；terse简明的；简短的
stultify (v.)． : make seem foolish，stupid，inconsistent，etc．；make absurd or ridiculous使显得愚蠢(可笑)
devoid (adj.) : completely not having；empty or destitute完全没有的；无(或缺乏的)
premium (n.) : a reward or prize，esp. one offered free or at a special。low price as an additional amount paid or charged奖品，奖赏，尤指奖金
slovenly (adj.) : of characteristic of a sloven马虎(或懒散)成性的
slowdown (n.) : slowing down，as of production(生产等的)减退；怠工
manipulation (n.) : skillful handling or operation：artful management or control，etc．操作；操纵;处理；熟练的；操作；巧妙的管理(或控制)
psyche (n.) : the human soul；the mind灵魂；心灵；精神
psychiatrist (n.) : expert in psychiatry精神病专家
routinize (v.) : make routine；reduce to a routine使成常规；使习惯于常规
spontaneity (n.) : the state or quality of being spontaneous自发性；自发的情况
deep-seated (adj.) : deep-rooted；firmly established根深蒂固的
gadget (n.) : any small，esp. mechanical contrivance or device(尤指机械装置的)小发明
cereal (n.) : any grain used for food，as wheat，oats，rice，etc．谷类
toaster (n.) : any of various utensils or appliances for toasting bread烤箱；烤炉
drudgery (n.) : work that is hard，menial，or tiresome单调乏味的工作；苦干
bliss (n.) : great joy or happiness极大的欢乐(或幸福)
knob (n.) : a handle，usually round，of a door，drawer，etc．(门、抽屉等的)球形把手
craving (n.) : an intense and prolonged desire；yearning or appetite，as for food，drink，etc．渴望，热望；(对饮食的)急欲
fraudulency (n.) : deceit；trickery；cheating欺诈；欺骗
intoxication (n.) : intoxicating or becoming intoxicated；a feeling of wild excitement；rapture；frenzy醉，喝醉；陶醉，极度兴奋，欣喜若狂
fleeting (adj.) : passing swiftly；not lasting疾驰的，疾逝的；短暂的
短语 (Expressions)
be obsessed by／with : If one is obsessed by／wisth．or sb.，he thinks about them all the time and cannot think of anything else．被…占据心思
例： He has always been obsessed by／with fear of unemployment. 他总是被失业的恐惧所困扰。
devoid of : completely lacking in；empty of没有，无
例： Mr．Wilson is a man totally devoid of aU humor．威尔逊先生是一个完全没有幽默感的人。
put／place a premium on : make it advantageous for sb．(to behave in a certain way，to do sth．)诱发；鼓励(某种行为，行动)
例： Work paid according to the amount done puts／places a premi-am on speed and not on quality．按件付酬导致看重速度而不看重质量。
be indicative of : be a clear sign that a particular situation exists or that sth．is likely to be true表示
例： He believes that the report is indicative of a new economic growth．他相信报告预示了一轮新的经济增长。
in the naIne of : with the authority of；in the cause of以…的名义，凭…的权威，为…的缘故
例： They carried out such cruel experiments on animals in tlle name of science．他们以科学的名义在动物身上进行如此残忍的实验
pay off : yield full recompense or retum，for either good or evil全部还清
例： They must pay off their creditors．他们必须偿还他们债权人的债务．
rest upon／on : depend on orbe based on sth．依赖，基于
例： His conclusion rested upon the information that he collected．他的结论是基于他所收集的信息得出的。
set／put sth.in motion : cause sth．to start moving or work使某物开始转动或工作
例： Pull this handle upward to set the machine in motion．把这个手柄向上拉，启动机器。
|