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UNIT 5
Text A
PRE-READING TASK
Exercise 1
Before reading the passage, think over the question.
Should a scientist be responsible for the results of his or her work? Why or why not?
Now read the passage and compare your view with the author's.
Social Responsibility of Scientists
1 There has been much debate for a number of years about how far scientists should be responsible to society for the results of their work. This question applies particularly to university scientists as they are the ones who are free to choose their field of research. The greater number of scientists today work for government sponsored bodies, or in industry; in their case, the responsibility lies mainly with the authorities that employ them; they are not entirely free agents, short of resigning from their post.
2 In 1979 legal charges were brought against the University of California claiming that agricultural research which it promoted had led to increased automation and consequently farm workers losing their jobs. The University's defence was that the results of research have been of benefit to the community as a whole through increased productivity and lower food prices, and that in any case the social consequences of its research were the responsibility of the whole community rather than of the University.
3 In 1970 the British Society for Social Responsibility in Science held an international conference in London on "The Social Impact of Modern Biology." Twenty famous scientists, including three Nobel prize-winners and six Fellows of the Royal Society, presented papers which were subsequently published along with the discussions in a book. It was generally accepted that within the next few decades developments in the biological sciences will radically change civilization as we know it today. Discoveries used wisely can be of immense benefit to mankind, but many can also be used in ways that either intentionally or unintentionally have disastrous effects on man and on the other inhabitants of this planet. Most scientists feel involved and have well-developed consciences in these matters, but the problems are extremely complex. In the first place scientists -- especially those doing pure research -- often do not know what sort of discovery they are likely to make, or, having made it, they cannot foresee the eventual impact on society. Very occasionally a scientist may find himself in a cruel dilemma.
4 The conference indicated that most scientists do have a feeling of responsibility toward society, but how far they are able to influence the application of their work is another matter. What they can do is to keep the public informed and especially to advise politicians and other influential persons. When a new technical development becomes available it should be examined by a commission on which all sections of the community are represented, including of course scientists competent in the particular field. The universities have a role to play here in that they can provide unbiased experts. The scientists should make the technological assessment of foreseeable benefits and harmful effects, and these should be clearly stated for all to see, but the decisions and responsibilities should be shared by all sections of the community. One of the problems is to arrive at a general agreement about social values and goals. Public debate through the media is essential in helping to shape values and make choices, but everyday experience of politics in democratic countries shows how difficult this often is.
5 One of the clearest statements I have read about the social responsibilities of scientists is an article by Nobel prize-winner Sir Ernst Chain. First he makes the point, with which I agree, that the general run of scientists outside their own specialty are no wiser than non-scientists, nor are they free from prejudice and emotional attitudes. Indeed even within their own field they are sometimes intolerant of the views of colleagues with whom they disagree. Their advice should be sought and respected on technical, factual matters within their competence, but outside that most scientists should be regarded in the same light as other citizens of comparable standing. Chain concludes that scientists cannot be held responsible for the unpleasant effects of their inventions; responsibility lies with the society that adopts the technological application. It is up to society to take -- and pay for -- measures against the unwanted side-effects such as pollution or invasion of privacy. Like others, Chain says that one thing scientists can and should do is to counteract the tendency of the news media to exaggerate and sensationalize new developments.
6 A point on which all scientists agree as an ideal when discussing these matters is that a scientist should be responsible for presenting a true picture to the public about new developments in his own field, and for indicating possible implications so far as he can see them. But of course scientists working in the defence services are rarely free to do this, nor are most of those in industry. A final word: whatever critics may say or wish, today science is an extremely important part of our culture, and modern civilization is in fact based on technology; there is no going back, and science and technology will influence our lives and the world we live in to an increasing extent. Therefore man will have to adjust to this situation as he has to other changes. Scientists must take a positive part, individually and collectively, in helping people understand the spirit of the brave new world.
New Words
sponsor
v. 资助，赞助
n. 1. 赞助者
2. 保证人
agricultural
a. of agriculture 农业的
automation
n. the act or practice of using machines that need little or no human control 自动化（技术），自动操作
subsequent
a. coming after something else 随后的
subsequently
ad. 随后地
radically
ad. 根本地，彻底地
mankind
n. the human race 人类
intention
n. a purpose 目的，意图
intentionally
ad. in an intentional manner 故意地，有意地
disastrous
a. 1. 极坏的，很糟的
2. 灾害性的
conscience
n. an inner sense of right and wrong 良心，道德
foresee
v. to see in advance 预见，预知
eventual
a. (of an event) happening at last as a result 最后的
occasional
a. not regular 偶尔的，偶然的
occasionally
ad. now and then 偶尔，间或
influential
a. having great influence 有影响（力）的
competent
a. having the ability or skill to do what is needed 有能力的，能胜任的
unbiased
a. 公正的，不偏袒一方的
technological
a. of or related to technology 技术（上）的
assess
v. to judge the quality or worth of 对…进行估价
assessment
n. a judgement or opinion 评价，估计
democratic
a. 民主的，平民的
prejudice
n. unfair and often unfavourable feeling or opinion 偏见
intolerant
a. not able to accept ways of thinking and behaving which are different from one's own 不能容忍的
factual
a. of, concerning, or based on facts 事实的，根据事实的
competence
n. ability to do what is needed 能力
conclude
v. to come to believe after consideration of known facts 推断出，推论出
unpleasant
a. not pleasant 使人不愉快的，讨厌的
adopt
v. to take and use as one's own 采用，采纳
unwanted
a. 1. 有害的
2. not wanted 不需要的，多余的
side-effect
n. a secondary or indirect effect 副作用，意外后果
invasionn. 侵害，侵占
privacy
n. 1. 隐私
2. 秘密
counteract
v. to act against and make (action, force, etc.) of less effect 对抗，抵制
tendency
n. 1.（作品等的）倾向，意向
2. 趋势，趋向
exaggerate
v. to say or believe more than the truth about 夸张
sensationalize
v. 使引起轰动，以耸人听闻的手段处理
ideal
n. 1. 设想，想象中的事物
2. a perfect example 理想
a. perfect 理想的
critic
n. 1. a person who forms and gives judgement 批评家，评论家
2. a person who (regularly ) finds faults with someone or something爱挑剔的人
collective
a. 1. of or related to a number of people 共同的，集体的
2. considered as a whole 总的
collectively
ad. 集体地，共同地
Phrases and Expressions
be responsible for
对…负责
(be) short of
缺乏，不足
lead to
导致
as a whole
整个来看
in the first place
第一点，首先
arrive at
达到，得出
make a point
表明一种看法，证明一个论点
be free from
没有…的
be up to
是…的职责
pay for
对…负责，为…承担后果或责任
so far as
（表示程度，范围）就…，尽…
Proper Names
the University of California
加利福尼亚大学
Nobel
诺贝尔（从名）
the Royal Society
（英国）皇家学会(=the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge)
Ernst Chain
厄恩斯特.钱恩（人名）
Text B
PRE-READING TASK
Exercise 1
Before reading the passage, consider the questions.
1. What is your image of a scientist in your mind?
2. Do you believe what scientists say? Why?
Science and Truth
1 "Finagle" is not a word that most people associate with science. One reason why science is so respected these days in that the image of the scientist is of one who dispassionately collects data in an impartial search for truth. In any debate the phrase "science says" usually squashes the opposition.
2 But scientists have long acknowledged the existence of a "finagle factor" -- a tendency by many scientists to give a helpful nudge to the data to produce desired results. The latest example of the finagle factor in action comes from Stephen Jay Gould, a Harvard biologist, who has examined the important 19th century work of Dr. Samuel George Morton.
3 Morton was famous in his time not only for gathering a huge collection of skulls but also for analyzing the cranial capacity, or brain size, of the skulls as a measure of intelligence. He concluded that whites had the largest brains, that the brains of Indians and blacks were smaller, and therefore, that whites constitute a superior race.
4 Gould went back to Morton's original data and concluded that the results were an example of the finagle at work. "I have reanalyzed Morton's data," Gould wrote last week in the journal, Science, "and I find that they are a patchwork of assumption and finagling, controlled, probably unconsciously, by his conventional a priori ranking (his folks on top, slaves on the bottom)."
5 Morton reached his conclusions, Gould found, by leaving out embarrassing data, using incorrect procedures, making simple arithmetical mistakes (always in his favor) and changing his criteria -- again, always in favor of his argument.
6 Left alone, that finding would not be particularly disturbing. Morton has been thoroughly discredited by now. Scientists do not believe that brain size reflects intelligence, and Morton's brand of raw racism is out of style. But Gould goes on to say that Morton's story is only "an admittedly very bad example of a common problem in scientific work." Some of the leading figures in science are believed to have used the finagle factor.
7 One of them is Groggor Mendel, whose work is the foundation of modern genetics. The success of Mendel's work was based on finding a three-to-one ratio in the dominant and recessive characteristics of hybrid plants he was breeding. He found that ratio. But scientists recently have gone back to his data and have found that the results are literally too good to be true. Like Morton, Mendel gave himself the benefit of the doubt.
8 All this is important because the finagle factor is still at work. In the saccharin controversy, for example, it was remarked that all the studies sponsored by the sugar industry found that the artificial sweetener was unsafe, while all the studies sponsored by the diet food industry found nothing wrong with saccharin.
9 No one suggested that the scientists were dishonest; it was just that they quite naturally had a strong tendency to find data that would support their beliefs. The same tendency is observable in almost every controversial area of science today -- the fight over race and intelligence, the dispute about generic vs. trade name drugs, the argument about nuclear energy, and so on.
10 It is only occasionally that the finagle factor breaks out into pure dishonesty. One example seems to be the research of Cyril Burt, the British scientist whose studies were used to support the belief that intelligence is mostly inherited. It now appears that Burt invented not only a good part of his results but also made up two collaborators whose names appear on his scientific papers.
11 The moral that Gould draws from his study of Morton is not that scientists are wicked but that they are just human beings, like the rest of us, and so should be subject to skepticism like the rest of us. In other words, listen to what science has to say, but never get far away from a grain of salt.
New Words
finagle
v. to act or obtain dishonestly 用欺骗的手段获得，欺骗
a. 欺骗的
dispassionately
ad. 态度客观地，不带偏见地
data
n. facts and information (datum 的复数) 资料
squash
v. to silence (a person) with a clever reply 使无言以对
acknowledge
v. 1. to admit 承认
2. to recognize the fact or existence of 确认
factor
n. a fact, circumstance, etc. helping to bring about a result 因素，要素
helpful
a. 1. useful 有用的，有益的
2. 建设性的
nudge
n. a gentle push 推动，推进
biologist
n. an expert in biology 生物学家
skull
n. 颅骨，头骨
analyze
v. to examine carefully in order to find out about 分析
cranial
a. 颅的
constitutev. 1. to form, make up or be 构成，形成
2. to establish 建立
journal
n. 1. a newspaper or periodical 报纸，期刊
2. a daily record of events, etc. 日志
patchwork
n. something made up of a number of different bits and pieces 拼凑的东西，杂烩
assumptionn. something that is taken as a fact or as true without proof 假定，臆断
unconscious
a. 1. not intentional 无意识的，下意识的
2. 失去知觉的
unconsciously
ad. 无意地，下意识地
conventional
a. following accepted practices, customs, and standards 按常规的，习惯的
a priori
a. （拉丁语）先验的；演绎的
procedure
a. an action or set of actions necessary for doing something 方法，步骤
arithmetic
n. 算术，计算
arithmetical
a. 算术（上）的
criterion
n. (pl. criteria) 标准，尺度
thorough
a. complete in every way 彻底的
thoroughly
ad. 彻底地
discredit
v. to refuse to believe in 怀疑，不信
reflect
v. to express or give an idea of 反映，表明
brand
n. a special kind （独特的）一种，（自成一格的）一类
racism
n. 1. 种族主义，人种优劣论
2. 种族歧视
foundation
n. that on which a belief, custom, way of life, etc. is based 基础，根据
ratio
n. a relation between two amounts 比例，比率
dominant
a. 1.（生物）显性的
2. 占优势的
recessive
a. 1.（生物）隐性的
2. having a tendency to go back 后退的
characteristic
n. a special and easily recognized quality 特点，特性
hybrid
a. (animal, plant, etc.) from parents of different species or varieties 杂交的
saccharin
n. 糖精
sweetener
n. 甜味添加剂
controversial
a. likely to cause controversy 有争议的，引起争论的
dispute
n. debate, argument 争论
v. to argue, debate, etc. 争论
generic
n. 非专利药品
vsprep. (versus的缩略语) against 与…相对，与…相比
dishonesty
n. the quality of being dishonest 不诚实，欺骗
collaboratorn. 合作者，协作者
wicked
a. very bad; evil 坏的，缺德的
skepticism
n. a doubting state or habit of mind 怀疑态度
Phrases and Expressions
in action
在起作用，在运转中
at work
在起作用，在运转
leave out
省略，忽视
in sb's favor
对某人有利
in favor of
有利于
leave alone
不干预，让独自呆着
by now
到现在，至今
(be) out of style
不再流行
break out
突然出现，突然发生
make up
虚构，捏造
be subject to
可有…的，需要…的，易受…的，应服从于
(with) a grain of salt
半信半疑（地）
Proper Names
Stephen Jay Gould
斯蒂芬.杰伊.古尔德（人名）
Harvard
（美国）哈佛大学
Samuel George Morton
塞缪尔.乔治.莫顿（人名）
Groggor Mendel
格罗格.门德尔（人名）
Cyril Burt
西里尔.伯特（人名）
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