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Callum:Hello. In recent programmes in this series, Who on Earth are we? Marc Beeby’s looked at some of the more obvious ways that cultures can be different from one another -the different ways we use language, or non-verbal communication, for example. Now here’s Marc to tell us about some other differences.
Marc:Today, we’re going to be hearing about two less obvious, but still very important ways that cultures can vary: our different attitudes to time and to space. We begin in Brazil, with Ana Baltazar.
Ana Baltazar
In the case of the Brazilian Indians I believe that the question of time and space is completely related. They build their houses in a very particular way, completely related to time, the position of the sun and things like that. This thing of time is not like our time today - like every minute really matters, but for them it's like longer time but they are completely aware of it - and they are kind of really using time but in a more patient way, I believe.
Marc: As Ana Baltazar says, for Brazilian Indians, time and space are closely related. In fact, although we may not be aware of it, time and space are closely related concepts for all of us. We’ll be looking at this idea in more detail later in the programme.
But, first things first. Here’s Rebecca Fong - a teacher of intercultural communication at the University of the West of England, Dr Rajni Badlani from India, and Eilidh Hamilton, who spent several years in the Middle East, talking about time and how we like to organise1 it.
Rebecca Fong
The way we package the notion（观念，想法，主张）of time is important. In order to describe it and manage it we divide it up into manageable periods - so there are days and years and seasons and weeks and so on - but we also divide it up into periods of time that are cultural so we can have periods between festivals or the periods of festivals such as Ramadan or Easter or Hanukkah . We also divide it into individual time so we have the periods between birthdays or when our first children or our second children are born. Time also has depth - by which I mean history - so that countries like America or Australia are modern or young in terms of history whereas2 cultures such as China and Arab cultures have histories that last for thousands of years. So time has meaning to us as individuals but it also has meaning to us as cultures.
Rajni Badlani
We have this phrase called Indian Standard Time, which is a joke. Which is like always being half an hour late, one hour late. But increasingly now with globalisation, and with having to deal with people from outside India, lots of people are becoming aware they need to keep appointments, and seeing the value of time.
Eilidh Hamilton
I think people do have an image of Arabs as being very late which is not necessarily fair - what people do do there is they tend to allow a much greater period of time for each social engagement3. So perhaps if you were invited for lunch at two you would expect to remain with your hosts until the evening. Whereas perhaps in Europe you might go at 2.00 and have left by 4.30. Because of that, perhaps, people aren't necessarily as punctual（严守时刻的） as we would expect them to be because there's much greater leeway in terms of the time.
Marc: Eilidh Hamilton. The first person to identify time and space as important elements in the study of culture was the North American anthropologist（人类学家）, Edward T. Hall. In looking at cultural attitudes to time, Hall made an important distinction between cultures where people like to do “one thing at a time” - ‘monochronic（出现一次的）’ cultures - and ‘polychronic’ cultures, where people have no problem doing several things at once. Now, of course, it’s not quite as simple as that. Professor James Keegan, a teacher of International Communication at Bethany College in North America, and Dr David Banks from Canada, help Rebecca Fong give a more detailed4 guide to the general characteristics of monochronic and polychronic cultures.
Rebecca Fong
Monochronism tends to go with cultures where people value individuality, personal space and personal time. And it's a characteristic of these peoples that they like to compartmentalise time -they put it on calendars they make appointments, they do one thing at a time. They always have something to do in a sort of linear5 route forwards. North Americans count as people like this. They want to do something, get it over and done with more or less on time and then move on to the next activity.
James Keegan
We’re a society that likes to save time. Time is of an essence6, there’s no doubt about it. From a non-North American perspective, we can seem very abrupt7, we can seem too familiar, we can seem as though we’re in a hurry. We’re a can-do society. I’m always in awe8 of the fact that people around me, village people and so on, can actually get things done, and get organised, and move ahead very quickly. And then at other times I’m absolutely frustrated9 because we’ve gone ahead and done something that we haven’t thought enough about.
Rebecca Fong
Time is linear（线状的） and time is moving forwards and time is money. So for both North Americans and British people and other people from monochronic cultures , time is equated10 with doing something, being active, but usually doing one thing at a time. And one of the by-products of this is that we think that doing nothing is wasting time. Polychronic cultures have an attitude to time that's different to this. They don't structure their time in the same way - they're much more able to be doing several things at once. So in cultures which tend to be more polychronic such as Arab, Turk, Spanish, Indian cultures people can be talking to more than one person at a time, they can be interacting11 with more than one person at a time, they can be living with several people at a time as well. To people from monochronic cultures this can seem a very chaotic12(混乱的) way of living.
David Banks
My parents took the view that when a child turns eighteen they should move on out of the house and move on towards university or a profession or whatever it is they're doing. Now in my case it's a bit unusual because I'm married to an Asian woman who's quite traditional and we moved in with her family and that's normal procedure so it was a typical Asian household - lots of vocal13 action and people running back and forth14 and it was a very dynamic（动态的）household. But when my child are say running around the house with friends for example, making a lot of noise, I still find that very hard to take. My wife, on the other hand, is quite comfortable with the idea of having quite a lot of kids running around - playing and making noise and with a more chaotic kind of living environment and I still struggle with that one.
Callum: David Banks.
As we’ve heard, the way we think about time is a reflection of our ideas about order and organisation15. Do we like to do one thing at a time, or are we happy to do several things at once? Exactly the same sort of considerations and differences can be seen in the way cultures like to organise space. Take public spaces, for example. In Arab cultures a public space is a place where people can come together, often in very large numbers, to talk, do business, socialize. These are often very busy, active places, with lots of things going on at once. This is not really the same in, say, modern British or American towns, which are often built around a long thin main street where people can’t gather in groups in quite the same way. The differences in the design and use of these public spaces are cultural differences. And we can see these differences even more clearly in the way we design and use the spaces in our houses. Rebecca Fong explains, with illustrations from Dionne Charmaine from Jamaica, Mounia El Kouche from Morocco, Eilidh Hamilton, and Kyung-ja Yoo from Japan.
Rebecca Fong
Even the organisation of our cities and our villages and our housing can be a reflection of our cultural requirements for space. British culture, for example, separates rooms into different functions so that you have the kitchen for cooking in the dining room for eating in the bedroom for sleeping in and we're very protective of our individual spaces so we love to have our own bedrooms and we have our own chairs and we have our own secret drawers. This is very different in other cultures.
Dionne Charmaine
The house had a massive16 back yard and front garden space, which is standard to Jamaican houses, they have loads of space. We played a lot outside -more outside than inside. It was almost as if the whole neighbourhood was your house or your home so to speak - you had a big family and you were always into each other's spaces -it was never private.
Mounia El-Kouche
An average Moroccan home varies from place to place. In the countryside made of stone usually and very often there’l be a courtyard in the middle, an open roof, perhaps a fountain and very traditional mosaic（马赛克） designs around the walls, even the floors and perhaps the ceilings too.
Rebecca Fong
Arabs don't have much space in public but they love to have big spaces inside their houses. They idealise large empty rooms with not much furniture because they don't like to be alone - they like to be with each other inside these big spaces.
Eilidh Hamilton
Personal space is such an issue for Westerners and I think there are two main aspects of that. One is simply the physical space when you're talking to someone but another aspect of it which I think we value very highly is our privacy17 and our right to privacy. In the Middle East that is just not a value that people hold. Interestingly in Arabic they use the same word for lonely and alone therefore meaning that if you've chosen to be in a solitary（孤独的，唯一的） state there is a problem with this, you must be unhappy. When I lived with Syrian families this would often be an issue because I might retire to my room to read and they would be worried about me so they'd come and want me to drink tea with them, which is very caring but it's a reflection of their hatred18 of being alone.
Rebecca Fong
The Japanese on the other hand don't have much physical space - they have very small apartments and houses. But what they do with the space is very clever. The spaces are multi-functional. So during the day they'll have a sitting room where at night they'll remove all the furniture and it becomes a bedroom.
Kyung-ja Yoo
The typical Japanese house is basically one big room - could be dining area, living area, the place you entertain guests and then could be guestroom or even your bedroom. The generation before me hardly really had their own room when they were child - they shared the room, they always stayed with parents. Parents know everything.
Marc: Kyung-ja Yoo. Broadly speaking, monochronic cultures - where people like to do one thing at a time - also seem to be those that value privacy and individual space, whereas cultures that are happy to do several things at once - polychronic cultures - seem to favour spaces where people can come together in groups. This leads us to one of the most important ways of describing the differences between cultures -the differences between cultures where the individual is seen as central, and those where the group - or the ‘collective’ - is seen as the most important unit.
Callum: That was Marc Beeby ending this Talk about English edition of Who on Earth are we?
We’ll be hearing more about individual and collective cultures in our next two programmes. I hope you’ll join us.
（本文由在线英语听力室整理编辑）
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1
organise
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| vt.组织，安排，筹办 | |
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2
whereas
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| conj.而，却，反之 | |
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engagement
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| n.订婚，婚约，约定，约会 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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linear
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| adj.线的，直线的，线状的，长度的，线性的 | |
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essence
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| n.本质，实质，精华，精粹 | |
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abrupt
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| adj.突然的，意外的；唐突的，鲁莽的 | |
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awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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9
frustrated
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| adj.挫败的，失意的，泄气的v.使不成功( frustrate的过去式和过去分词 )；挫败；使受挫折；令人沮丧 | |
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equated
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| adj.换算的v.认为某事物（与另一事物）相等或相仿( equate的过去式和过去分词 )；相当于；等于；把（一事物） 和（另一事物）等同看待 | |
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interacting
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| adj.相互影响的；相互作用的 | |
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12
chaotic
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| adj.混沌的，一片混乱的，一团糟的 | |
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13
vocal
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| adj.直言不讳的；嗓音的；n.[pl.]声乐节目 | |
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14
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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organisation
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| n.组织，安排，团体，有机休 | |
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16
massive
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| adj.巨大的，大规模的，大量的，大范围的 | |
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17
privacy
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| n.私人权利，个人自由，隐私权 | |
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18
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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