词汇大师-- Why Handwriting and Spelling Drills

　　AA: I'm Avi Arditti with Rosanne Skirble, and this week on WORDMASTER: We're back with Virginia Berninger, an educational psychology¹ professor at the University of Washington in Seattle.
RS: A study she and her colleagues did found that children in fourth and sixth grade wrote longer essays when they were writing by hand than when they were typing on a keyboard. The children also wrote the words faster, and they wrote more complete sentences.
AA: But while children should learn good penmanship, Berninger says teaching handwriting by itself misses the point.

　　VIRGINIA BERNINGER: "What our research and other people's research is showing is, starting around kindergarten, first grade, kids really do best when you integrate writing with the reading and you start with idea expression. You have them put their ideas on paper, and then you build into that some instruction in handwriting and spelling.
"But the ultimate goal is to express their ideas. And they can do it. We do not recommend drill of handwriting or spelling in isolation². It is always taught in a way for the children to transfer it, to idea expression, which is the true purpose of writing. And that cognitive³ writing emerges around age six."
AA: "And you're saying it should be taught that way."
VIRGINIA BERNINGER: "Oh, absolutely."
RS: "What I hear you saying is that it should be taught in context, which is how language -- second language learners learn a language. Or any language learner learns a language best."
VIRGINIA BERNINGER: "We teach a strategy -- and this was developed by Jennifer Katahira in the Seattle public schools -- 'What I think, I can say. What I say, I can write.' So the teacher models a very, very short sentence. Starting with kindergarten, it might be a sentence or two long. Then the children think out loud, and they use little cue cards that help them with forming letters and getting sounds that go with letters.
"So as they say their ideas out loud, they then think about the sounds and the letters that go with it. They write it down. At the end they always read it to their writing buddies⁴. We have audience from the beginning. And what we found, when children do that kind of writing, they actually become very good readers, too."
AA: "I'm curious, how common is it from your experience, that writing is taught in isolation? In just drill-and-kill, maybe is what you might call it."
VIRGINIA BERNINGER: "Now a colleague of mine, Steve Graham, does surveys of teachers' practices, and he finds either teachers are only teaching handwriting and spelling incidentally -- you know, when they think it's appropriate, it's very casual -- or they're very into the skills, you know, just drilling the skills.
"From my experience working in the schools, there are fewer people integrating the teaching of the handwriting and spelling with the idea expression. They either do writers' workshop and idea expression and social context, or they work on skills for the sake of skills -- kind of drill in isolation, the old penmanship model. That's not what our research is showing works. It's the combining of the two approaches: writing for idea expression, and then teaching the transcription skills."
AA: "What do you think, based on all your experience -- I mean, what we hear now is, we see the kids texting and typing on their computers and so forth⁵, do you have any sense ... I know your research is restricted to the younger kids, but in terms of idea expression or creativity, do you have any sort of hunches⁶ of what this is meaning? Because the trend seems to be away from handwriting, the old fashioned way, more toward computer mediated⁷ writing."
VIRGINIA BERNINGER: "We haven't done the studies with adolescents. There are some people in other countries doing this research now, and I'm aware of some that are finding similar things. We do know from a lot of writing research that computers are very, very good for the revision process. It may just be that that first draft benefits by producing it by hand."
RS: Virginia Berninger is a professor of educational psychology at the University of Washington in Seattle. She's put together a list of resources for teaching writing. You can find it, along with the first part of our interview, at our Web site, voanews.com/wordmaster.
AA: Where you can also send us comments and get our weekly podcast. And that's WORDMASTER for this week. With Rosanne Skirble, I'm Avi Arditti.
___
The following was prepared by V. W. Berninger, Ph.D., director of the University of Washington Literacy Trek⁸ Write Stuff Intervention⁹ Project and Longitudinal Study, and the Multidisciplinary Learning Disabilities Center:
Books on Evidence-Based Writing Instruction
1. Graham, S., MacArthur, C., & Fitzgerald, J. (2007). "Best practices in writing instruction." NY: Guilford.
2. Berninger, V. (2007). "Process Assessment¹⁰ of the Learner II User’s Guide." San Antonio, TX: Harcourt/PsyCorp. (CD format) ISBN 0158661818 Second Revision issued August 2008. Contains lists of resources for writing instruction and explains how to link writing assessment and writing intervention. Has published writing lessons from the UW research program that can be downloaded. Is in the "PAL¹¹ II Test Battery for Reading and Writing."
3. Morris, R. & Mather, N. (Eds.) (2008). "Evidence-based interventions¹² for students with learning and behavioral challenges" (pp. 215-235). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (LEA).
4. Troia, G. (Ed.) (2008). "Writing Instruction and Assessment for Struggling Writers From Theory to Evidence Based Practices." New York: Guilford.
Book on Evidence-Based Issues in Motivation for Writing (Social/Emotional Issues)
S. Hidi, & P. Boscolo (Eds). "Motivation in writing" (pp. 159-179). Originally Amsterdam, Elsevier, now Emerald, Australia.
Integrating Transcription (Handwriting/Spelling) With Composition
Berninger, V., & Abbott, S. (2003) Lesson Sets 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 9 in "PAL Research-Supported Reading and Writing Lessons," Harcourt: San Antonio.
Integrating Writing and Reading in Motivating, Authentic¹³ Contexts
1. Berninger, V., & Abbott, S. (2003). Lesson Sets 13 and 14 in "PAL Research-Supported Reading and Writing Lessons," Harcourt: San Antonio. Lesson Sets 8, 9, and 10 for composition only.
2. Berninger, V., & Wolf, B. (2009a). "Teaching students with dyslexia and dysgraphia: Lessons from teaching and science." Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
3. Berninger, V., & Wolf, B. (2009b). "Helping¹⁴ students with dyslexia and dysgraphia make connections: Differentiated¹⁵ instruction lesson plans in reading and writing." Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Spiral book with teaching plans from University of Washington Research Program.
Self-Regulated Writing Strategies (Handwriting, Spelling, Composing)
1. Graham, S., & Harris, K. (2005). "Writing Better. Effective Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning Difficulties." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
2. Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Mason, L., & Friedlander, B. (2008). "Powerful writing strategies for all students." Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
Web Site with Resources for Students Learning Written English
Web address for the software English Discoveries. Once you reach the Web site, you can navigate¹⁶ it by clicking on one of the menu items on the left hand side of the page.
http://techno-ware-esl.com/engdisc.html
Overview¹⁷ of Writing Skills and Instruction for Parents and Teachers:
Carter, A., Carroll, S., Page, L., & and Romero, I. (Eds.) (2008). "Helping Children at Home and School: Handouts¹⁹ for families and educators." Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. (2008). See Handout¹⁸ by Berninger and Dunn for Writing in Intermediate and Secondary Grades. Also for the Preschool and Elementary grades.
Resources for Teaching Handwriting
1. Zaner-Bloser Zaner-Bloser handwriting programs for use in general education. See www.zaner-bloser.com/fresh/handwriting-overview.html
2. Slingerland www.slingerland.org or phone [phone] Slingerland, B. & Aho, M. (1985a) "Manual for Learning to Use Manuscript Writing" Bellevue, WA: Slingerland Institute for Literacy. Details how to teach and review letters of the alphabet, usually used in Kindergarten, first and second grades.
Slingerland, B. & Aho, M. (1985b) "Masters for Learning to Use Manuscript Writing" Bellevue, WA: Slingerland Institute for Literacy
Slingerland, B. & Aho, M. (1985c) "Manual for Learning to Use Cursive Writing" Bellevue, WA: Slingerland Institute for Literacy
Slingerland, B. & Aho, M. (1985d) "Masters for Learning to Use Cursive Writing" Bellevue, WA: Slingerland Institute for Literacy.
Slingerland Institute for Literacy. (2008) "Binder²⁰ Size Handwriting Charts" Bellevue, WA: Slingerland Institute for Literacy. Manuscript and Cursive upper and lower case letter patterns for easy student reference. (1998) "Slingerland Masters for Lined Handwriting Paper" Bellevue, WA: Slingerland Institute for Literacy. Reproducible masters for various sizes of handwriting paper.
3. Rubel, B. (1995). "Big strokes for little folks." Tucson, AZ: Therapy Skill Builders.
4. Benbow, M. (1990). "Loops and groups: A kinesthetic writing system." San Antonio, TX: Therapy Skill Builders.
5. Olsen, J. (2004). "Handwriting without tears." Cabin John, MD.
Resources for Teaching Typing
1. Fry. "Keyboarding for Beginners." Teachers’ Creative Materials, Inc. www.teachercreated.com
2. "Ten Thumbs Typing Tutor" (tenthumbstypingtutor.com)
Resources for Teaching Spelling
1. Masterson, J., Apel, K., & Wasowicz, J. (2006). SPELL 2 Spelling Performance Evaluation²¹ for Language and Literacy (Spelling assessment software for grade 2 through adult.) Learning by Design. Also, SPELL-Links to Reading & Writing - A Word Study Program for K-Adult. (Assessment linked to instruction.) Learning By Design, Inc. http://www.learningbydesign.com/
2. Fry, E. (1996). " Spelling book. Level 1-6. Words most needed plus phonics." Westminster, Calif.: Teacher Created Materials, Inc. www.teachercreated.com. Contains lessons with words and strategies for teaching children to spell high-frequency words alone and in dictated²² sentences and apply phonics knowledge to spelling. Provides placement test for placing children at their instructional level.
3. Dixon, R., & Englemann, S. (2001). "Spelling through morphographs." DeSoto, TX: SRA/McGraw-Hill. Excellent program once students have mastered Fry program.
4. McGraw Hill: "Spelling Connections and Spelling Mastery."
5. Henry, M. (2003). "Unlocking literacy. Effective decoding²³ and spelling instruction." Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. Explains how to teach decoding of words of Anglo Saxon, Latinate and Greek origin based on the phonological, orthographic²⁴ and morphological units in words.
6. Gentry²⁵, J. (2004). "The science of spelling. The explicit²⁶ specifics that make great readers and writers (and spellers!)" Heinemann: www.heinemann.com
7. Bear, D. Ivernezzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2000). "Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction" (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
8. "Effective Decoding, Spelling, and Vocabulary Instruction."  http://alternativeed.sjsu.edu Click on "training modules²⁸" on left side of screen. Then choose Module²⁷ 13 or the numbered one for major prefixes²⁹ and suffixes³⁰ for Latin roots and Greek combining forms.
9. Berninger, V., & Abbott, S. (2003). PAL Research-Supported Reading and Writing Lessons. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt. Lesson Sets 4, 5, and 7: Phonological Stage of Spelling Development.
Resources for Teaching Composing
1. Wong, B., & Berninger, V. (2005). Cognitive processes of teachers in implementing³¹ composition research in elementary, middle, and high school classrooms. In B. Shulman, K. Apel, B. Ehren, E. Silliman, & A. Stone (Eds.), "Handbook of Language and Literacy Development and Disorders³²." New York: Guilford. (This chapter shows teachers how to apply the cognitive processes model of writing to teaching composing explicitly³³ -- making instructional plans, implementing them in practice, reviewing student progress on a regular basis, and revising instructional approach when necessary. It also illustrates³⁴ Wong’s model for integrated lessons for using the computer in the instructional program in writing with middle school and high school students. It calls attention to the importance of teaching students explicit strategies for managing time in completing assignments outside class.)
Resources for Teaching Sentence Construction
1. Farbman, E. (1989). "Sentence sense. A writer's guide." Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Resources for Teaching Discourse³⁵ Composition
1. Carlisle, J. (1996). "Models for writing, Levels A, B, and C." Novato, CA: Academic Therapy Publications. also www.highnoonbooks.com reproducibles for classroom use.
2. Auman, M. (2003). Step up to writing (2nd ed.). Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
3. Traits of Good Writing (gr. 1-2, 3-4, or 5-6). Remedia Scottsdale, AZ   1-800-826-4740
4. Nelson, N., Bahr, C., & Van Meter, A. (2004). "The Writing Lab Approach to Language Instruction and Intervention." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Offers practical suggestions for teachers to use in scaffolding instruction for students with language learning disability and for using software to support the composing.

1 psychology   

n.心理，心理学，心理状态

参考例句：

• She has a background in child psychology.她受过儿童心理学的教育。
• He studied philosophy and psychology at Cambridge.他在剑桥大学学习哲学和心理学。

2 isolation   

n.隔离，孤立，分解，分离

参考例句：

• The millionaire lived in complete isolation from the outside world.这位富翁过着与世隔绝的生活。
• He retired and lived in relative isolation.他退休后，生活比较孤寂。

3 cognitive   

adj.认知的，认识的，有感知的

参考例句：

• As children grow older,their cognitive processes become sharper.孩子们越长越大，他们的认知过程变得更为敏锐。
• The cognitive psychologist is like the tinker who wants to know how a clock works.认知心理学者倒很像一个需要通晓钟表如何运转的钟表修理匠。

4 buddies   

n.密友( buddy的名词复数 )；同伴；弟兄；（用于称呼男子，常带怒气）家伙v.（如密友、战友、伙伴、弟兄般）交往( buddy的第三人称单数 )；做朋友；亲近（…）；伴护艾滋病人

参考例句：

• We became great buddies. 我们成了非常好的朋友。 来自辞典例句
• The two of them have become great buddies. 他们俩成了要好的朋友。 来自辞典例句

5 forth   

adv.向前；向外，往外

参考例句：

• The wind moved the trees gently back and forth.风吹得树轻轻地来回摇晃。
• He gave forth a series of works in rapid succession.他很快连续发表了一系列的作品。

6 hunches   

预感，直觉( hunch的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• A technical sergeant hunches in a cubicle. 一位技术军士在一间小屋里弯腰坐着。
• We often test our hunches on each other. 我们经常互相检验我们的第六感觉。

7 mediated   

调停，调解，斡旋( mediate的过去式和过去分词 )； 居间促成； 影响…的发生； 使…可能发生

参考例句：

• He mediated in the quarrel between the two boys. 他调解两个孩子之间的争吵。
• The government mediated between the workers and the employers. 政府在工人与雇主间搞调和。

8 trek   

vi.作长途艰辛的旅行；n.长途艰苦的旅行

参考例句：

• We often go pony-trek in the summer.夏季我们经常骑马旅行。
• It took us the whole day to trek across the rocky terrain.我们花了一整天的时间艰难地穿过那片遍布岩石的地带。

9 intervention   

n.介入，干涉，干预

参考例句：

• The government's intervention in this dispute will not help.政府对这场争论的干预不会起作用。
• Many people felt he would be hostile to the idea of foreign intervention.许多人觉得他会反对外来干预。

10 assessment   

n.评价；评估；对财产的估价，被估定的金额

参考例句：

• This is a very perceptive assessment of the situation.这是一个对该情况的极富洞察力的评价。
• What is your assessment of the situation?你对时局的看法如何？

11 pal   

n.朋友，伙伴，同志；vi.结为友

参考例句：

• He is a pal of mine.他是我的一个朋友。
• Listen,pal,I don't want you talking to my sister any more.听着，小子，我不让你再和我妹妹说话了。

12 interventions   

n.介入，干涉，干预( intervention的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Economic analysis of government interventions deserves detailed discussion. 政府对经济的干预应该给予充分的论述。 来自辞典例句
• The judge's frequent interventions made a mockery of justice. 法官的屡屡干预是对正义的践踏。 来自互联网

13 authentic   

a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的

参考例句：

• This is an authentic news report. We can depend on it. 这是篇可靠的新闻报道, 我们相信它。
• Autumn is also the authentic season of renewal. 秋天才是真正的除旧布新的季节。

14 helping   

n.食物的一份&adj.帮助人的，辅助的

参考例句：

• The poor children regularly pony up for a second helping of my hamburger. 那些可怜的孩子们总是要求我把我的汉堡包再给他们一份。
• By doing this, they may at times be helping to restore competition. 这样一来, 他在某些时候,有助于竞争的加强。

15 differentiated   

区分，区别，辨别( differentiate的过去式和过去分词 )； 区别对待； 表明…间的差别，构成…间差别的特征

参考例句：

• The development of mouse kidney tubules requires two kinds of differentiated cells. 小鼠肾小管的发育需要有两种分化的细胞。
• In this enlargement, barley, alfalfa, and sugar beets can be differentiated. 在这张放大的照片上，大麦，苜蓿和甜菜都能被区分开。

16 navigate   

v.航行，飞行；导航，领航

参考例句：

• He was the first man to navigate the Atlantic by air.他是第一个飞越大西洋的人。
• Such boats can navigate on the Nile.这种船可以在尼罗河上航行。

17 overview   

n.概观，概述

参考例句：

• The opening chapter gives a brief historical overview of transport.第一章是运输史的简要回顾。
• The seminar aims to provide an overview on new media publishing.研讨会旨在综览新兴的媒体出版。

18 handout   

n.散发的文字材料；救济品

参考例句：

• I read the handout carefully.我仔细看了这份分发的资料。
• His job was distributing handout at the street-corner.他的工作是在街头发传单。

19 handouts   

救济品( handout的名词复数 )； 施舍物； 印刷品； 讲义

参考例句：

• Soldiers oversee the food handouts. 士兵们看管着救济食品。
• Even after losing his job, he was too proud to accept handouts. 甚至在失去工作后，他仍然很骄傲，不愿接受施舍。

20 binder   

n.包扎物，包扎工具；[法]临时契约；粘合剂；装订工

参考例句：

• The cloth flower snaps on with a special binder.这布花是用一种特殊的粘合剂固定住的。
• Purified water was used as liquid binder.纯净水作为液体粘合剂。

21 evaluation   

n.估价，评价；赋值

参考例句：

• I attempted an honest evaluation of my own life.我试图如实地评价我自己的一生。
• The new scheme is still under evaluation.新方案还在评估阶段。

22 dictated   

v.大声讲或读( dictate的过去式和过去分词 )；口授；支配；摆布

参考例句：

• He dictated a letter to his secretary. 他向秘书口授信稿。
• No person of a strong character likes to be dictated to. 没有一个个性强的人愿受人使唤。 来自《简明英汉词典》

23 decoding   

n.译码，解码v.译（码），解（码）( decode的现在分词 )；分析及译解电子信号

参考例句：

• We cannot add any other memory to this system without further decoding. 如果不增加译码，就不能使系统的存贮容量有任何扩展。 来自辞典例句
• Examples using the 8250 will be presented in hardware section to clarify full-decoding schemes. 在硬件一节中有应用说明全译码方案8250的例子。 来自辞典例句

24 orthographic   

adj.正字法的，拼字正确的；正射

参考例句：

• Then place an osg:Camera above the subgraph to create an orthographic projection. 你所要做的是将你的文字创建在一个子图中。 来自互联网
• What is to be represented, and how? Haitian Creole orthographic debates. 要表现什麽？如何表现？海地克理奥尔拼字法的争论。 来自互联网

25 gentry   

n.绅士阶级，上层阶级

参考例句：

• Landed income was the true measure of the gentry.来自土地的收入是衡量是否士绅阶层的真正标准。
• Better be the head of the yeomanry than the tail of the gentry.宁做自由民之首，不居贵族之末。

26 explicit   

adj.详述的，明确的；坦率的；显然的

参考例句：

• She was quite explicit about why she left.她对自己离去的原因直言不讳。
• He avoids the explicit answer to us.他避免给我们明确的回答。

27 module   

n.组件，模块，模件；(航天器的)舱

参考例句：

• The centre module displays traffic guidance information.中央模块显示交通引导信息。
• Two large tanks in the service module held liquid oxygen.服务舱的两个大气瓶中装有液态氧。

28 modules   

n.模块( module的名词复数 )；单元；（宇宙飞船上各个独立的）舱；组件

参考例句：

• The course consists of ten core modules and five optional modules. 这门课程包括十个必修单元和五个选修单元。
• Our English course is divided into modules on poetry, drama, and novels. 我们的英语课分为诗歌、戏剧和小说等单元。 来自《简明英汉词典》

29 prefixes   

n.前缀( prefix的名词复数 )；人名前的称谓；前置代号（置于前面的单词或字母、数字）

参考例句：

• The prefixes cis and trans are frequently applied to disubstituted cycloalkanes. 词头顺和反常用于双取代的环烷烃。 来自辞典例句
• Why do you use so many prefixes while talking? 你说起话来，怎么这么多中缀？ 来自互联网

30 suffixes   

n.后缀，词尾( suffix的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Many domain name suffixes have failed to gain general popularity. 很多域名后缀没有获得一般的通用性。 来自互联网
• For example, consider the use of prefixes and suffixes. 例如，那前缀和后缀的使用来说。 来自互联网

31 implementing   

v.实现( implement的现在分词 )；执行；贯彻；使生效

参考例句：

• -- Implementing a comprehensive drug control strategy. ――实行综合治理的禁毒战略。 来自汉英非文学 - 白皮书
• He was in no hurry about implementing his unshakable principle. 他并不急于实行他那不可动摇的原则。 来自辞典例句

32 disorders   

n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调

参考例句：

• Reports of anorexia and other eating disorders are on the increase. 据报告，厌食症和其他饮食方面的功能紊乱发生率正在不断增长。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• The announcement led to violent civil disorders. 这项宣布引起剧烈的骚乱。 来自《简明英汉词典》

33 explicitly   

ad.明确地，显然地

参考例句：

• The plan does not explicitly endorse the private ownership of land. 该计划没有明确地支持土地私有制。
• SARA amended section 113 to provide explicitly for a right to contribution. 《最高基金修正与再授权法案》修正了第123条，清楚地规定了分配权。 来自英汉非文学 - 环境法 - 环境法

34 illustrates   

给…加插图( illustrate的第三人称单数 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明

参考例句：

• This historical novel illustrates the breaking up of feudal society in microcosm. 这部历史小说是走向崩溃的封建社会的缩影。
• Alfred Adler, a famous doctor, had an experience which illustrates this. 阿尔弗莱德 - 阿德勒是一位著名的医生，他有过可以说明这点的经历。 来自中级百科部分

35 discourse   

n.论文，演说；谈话；话语；vi.讲述，著述

参考例句：

• We'll discourse on the subject tonight.我们今晚要谈论这个问题。
• He fell into discourse with the customers who were drinking at the counter.他和站在柜台旁的酒客谈了起来。